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THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"CLIMATE SOLUTIONS;","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"WASHINGTON CONSERVATION","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"ACTION; FRONT AND CENTERED;","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"WASHINGTON SOLAR ENERGY","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATION; THE","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"SIERRA CLUB; WASHINGTON","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"PHYSICIANS FOR SOCIAL","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"RESPONSIBILITY; KING COUNTY, a","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"Washington municipal corporation; CITY","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"OF SEATTLE, a Washington municipal","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"corporation; ANTHONY","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"MASCHMEDT; DWELL","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"DEVELOPMENT,","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"Respondents,","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"v.","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"STATE OF WASHINGTON;","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"BUILDING INDUSTRY ASSOCATION","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"OF WASHINGTON; ASHLI PENNER,","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"Appellants.","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"NO. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"EN BANC","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"Filed: September 17, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"STEPHENS, C.J.—The people of Washington have the authority to propose","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"and pass legislation through initiative, subject to constitutional limitations. WASH.","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"CONST. art. II, §§ 1, 19. This case concerns Initiative 2066 (I-2066), which was","paragraph_id":"para_26"},{"text":"approved by Washington voters in the November 2024 general election. I-2066FILE","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"IN CLERK’S OFFICE","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"SUPREME COURT, STATE OF WASHINGTON","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"SEPTEMBER 17, 2026THIS OPINION WAS FILED","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"FOR RECORD AT 8 A.M. ON","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"SEPTEMBER 17, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"SARAH R. PENDLETON","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"SUPREME COURT CLERK","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"2","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"impacts Washington law in several ways. It prevents all local governments, and","paragraph_id":"para_37","court_paragraph":2},{"text":"some utilities, from taking any action that discourages or prohibits natural gas; it","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"broadly inhibits the authority of local air quality regulators; it removes several","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"specific zero-emission goals from state law; it rolls back certain decarbonization","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"efforts while also amending the Washington Decarbonization Act for Large","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"Combination Utilities, ch. 80.86 RCW; and it prevents the state building council","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"from taking any action to discourage gas usage or from taking certain actions to","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"promote the transition away from all fossil fuels.","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"A group called Climate Solutions, joined by several organizations and","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"government entities, challenged the constitutionality of I-2066 under article II,","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"sections 19 and 37 of the Washington Constitution. The King County Superior Court","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"invalidated the initiative in its entirety, holding that it impermissibly encompasses","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"more than one subject, fails to include its subjects in the title, and fails to set forth","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"the laws it amends.","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"We affirm on narrower grounds. We hold that I-2066 violates the single-","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"subject requirement contained in article II, section 19. Because the provisions that","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"introduce distinct subjects are not severable, I-2066 is unconstitutional in its entirety.","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"BACKGROUND","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"In November 2024, Washington voters approved I-2066 with the following","paragraph_id":"para_55"},{"text":"ballot title:","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"3","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"Initiative Measure No. 2066 concerns regulating energy services,","paragraph_id":"para_59","court_paragraph":3},{"text":"including natural gas and electrification. This measure would repeal or","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"prohibit certain laws and regulations that discourage natural gas use","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"and/or promote electrification, and require certain utilities and local","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"governments to provide natural gas to eligible customers.","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"Clerk’s Papers (CP) at 636.","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"The legislative title for I-2066 describes the measure as “AN ACT Relating to","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"promoting energy choice by protecting access to gas for Washington homes and","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"businesses.” CP at 654. I-2066 is 21 pages long and contains 13 sections, which","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"may be grouped into several categories.","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"First, some sections enact new requirements for entities primarily responsible","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"for delivering and regulating the demand and supply of natural gas—local","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"governments, utility providers, and the Utilities and Transportation Commission","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"(UTC). I-2066 requires these entities to ensure consumers have access to natural","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"gas, regardless of the availability of other energy sources. I-2066, §§ 2-5. It achieves","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"this by enacting new requirements and repealing sections of the Decarbonization Act","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"that would have mandated or incentivized the electrification of Washington’s energy","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"infrastructure. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"Second, some sections regulate the goals and standards governing the","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"Washington State Building Code Council and all new construction across the state.","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"Id. §§ 6-8. For example, section 6 removes a stated construction goal from","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"Washington’s energy code that was aimed at achieving zero greenhouse gas","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"4","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"emission homes and buildings by 2031. Id. § 6(2)-(3). Sections 6, 7, and 8 prevent","paragraph_id":"para_83","court_paragraph":4},{"text":"the state building code council from amending the state energy code or the state","paragraph_id":"para_84"},{"text":"building code in any way that would prohibit, penalize, or discourage the use of gas","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"as a form of heating or for appliance or equipment uses. Id. §§ 6-8.","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"Third, I-2066 places broad restrictions on the authority of cities, towns,","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"counties, and local air pollution control agencies. It prevents these local entities","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"from taking any action to prohibit, penalize, or discourage the use of gas for any","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"form of heating, or for uses related to any appliance or equipment, in any building.","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"Id. §§ 9-11.","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"Finally, I-2066 amends several existing laws, repealing, for example, the","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"Decarbonization Act’s severability clause as well as legislative findings on clean","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"energy, emissions reductions, and electrification. Id. § 12.","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"Climate Solutions and several other entities (collectively Climate Solutions)","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"filed this action in King County Superior Court, alleging that I-2066 is","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"unconstitutional on several grounds. Climate Solutions argued that I-2066 violates","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"the “single-subject” and “subject-in-title” requirements contained in article II,","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"section 19 and silently amends other laws in violation of article II, section 37. The","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"State of Washington, joined by intervenors the Building Industry Association of","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"Washington and Ashli Penner (collectively BIAW), defended the constitutionality","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"of the initiative. The parties filed cross motions for summary judgment.","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"5","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"The trial court granted Climate Solutions’ motion for summary judgment,","paragraph_id":"para_105","court_paragraph":5},{"text":"declaring I-2066 unconstitutional in its entirety on all grounds presented. The State","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"and BIAW appealed directly to our court, and we granted review.1","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"ANALYSIS","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"Unlike Congress, whose powers must be enumerated in the United States","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"Constitution, state legislatures possess broad, plenary police power, with our state","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"constitution placing express restraints on that power. THOMAS M. COOLEY, A","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"TREATISE ON THE CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS WHICH REST UPON THE","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE STATES OF THE AMERICAN UNION 207 (5th ed. 1883);","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"State v. Gunwall, 106 Wn.2d 54, 66, 720 P.2d 808 (1986) (“[O]ur state constitution","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"imposes limitations on the otherwise plenary power of the state to do anything not","paragraph_id":"para_115"},{"text":"expressly forbidden by the state constitution or federal law.”). The people’s","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"legislative power to enact law through popular initiative is subject to the same","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"constitutional restraints as applied to bills passed by the legislature. WASH. CONST.","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"art I, § 1 (“All political power is inherent in the people.”); City of Burien v. Kiga,","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"144 Wn.2d 819, 824, 31 P.3d 659 (2001) (“In approving an initiative measure, the","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"1 We accepted amici briefs from several organizations and elected officials: Associated Builders","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"and Contractors of Western Washington et al.; former Governor Jay Inslee, Senator Rebecca","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"Saldaña, Representative Beth Doglio, and Representative Joe Fitzgibbon (collectively Officials);","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"Heating, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration Distributors International; Master Builders","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"Association of King and Snohomish Counties; Northwest Hearth, Patio & Barbecue Association;","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"Physicians for Social Responsibility et al.; Washington Aggregates & Concrete Association;","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"Washington Food Industry Association et al.; Association of Washington Business; and","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"Washington State Building Code Council.","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"6","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"people exercise the same power of sovereignty as the Legislature when enacting a","paragraph_id":"para_131","court_paragraph":6},{"text":"statute.”).","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"Article II, section 19 is among the constitutional provisions that operate to","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"restrain the legislature’s otherwise plenary power. Union High Sch. Dist. No. 1 v.","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"Taxpayers of Union High Sch. Dist. No. 1, 26 Wn.2d 1, 7, 172 P.2d 591 (1946). It","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"provides that “[n]o bill shall embrace more than one subject, and that shall be","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"expressed in the title.” WASH. CONST. art II, § 19. This provision contains “two","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"distinct prohibitions.” Amalg. Transit Union Loc. 587 v. State, 142 Wn.2d 183, 207,","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"11 P.3d 762 (2000). The first is that “no bill shall embrace more than one subject,”","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"and the second is that “no bill shall have a subject that is not expressed in the title.”","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"Lee v. State, 185 Wn.2d 608, 620, 374 P.3d 157 (2016). We generally refer to the","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"first as the “single-subject” requirement and the second as the “subject-in-title”","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"This limitation on legislative power “protect[s] serious constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"interests,” and its purposes are “threefold.” Patrice v. Murphy, 136 Wn.2d 845, 851,","paragraph_id":"para_145"},{"text":"966 P.2d 1271 (1998); State ex rel. Wash. Toll Bridge Auth. v. Yelle, 32 Wn.2d 13,","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"24, 200 P.2d 467 (1948). First, it prevents “logrolling,” the impermissible practice","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"of attaching unpopular provisions addressing one subject to more popular, but","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"unrelated, provisions to increase their likelihood of enactment. Garfield County","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"Transp. Auth. v. State, 196 Wn.2d 378, 387, 473 P.3d 1205 (2020); see also COOLEY,","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"7","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"supra, at 172 (describing the practice of “logrolling” as “one both corruptive of the","paragraph_id":"para_153","court_paragraph":7},{"text":"legislator and dangerous to the State”). Second, it prevents hidden subjects from","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"being enacted into law without being properly scrutinized by those responsible for","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"their enactment. Garfield, 196 Wn.2d at 387. Relatedly, it serves the broader","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"interest of political transparency by allowing the public to understand and engage","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"with the contents of proposed laws, whether they be initiatives or bills introduced in","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"the legislature. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"I. The Constitutionally Permissible Scope of a Legislative “Subject” Is Broad","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"but Not Unlimited","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"Our constitutional single-subject inquiry begins by determining whether a","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"measure’s title is “general or restrictive,” and the subsequent analysis of its subject","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"is guided by this determination. Filo Foods, LLC v. City of SeaTac, 183 Wn.2d 770,","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"782, 357 P.3d 1040 (2015). We look first at the wording of the ballot title, but we","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"examine the measure in its entirety to ensure it embraces only a single subject. State","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"ex rel. Wash. Toll Bridge Auth. v. Yelle, 61 Wn.2d 28, 32, 377 P.2d 466 (1962)","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"(examining whether legislation contained only its “general subject in both the title .","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":". . and in the body of the act” (emphasis added)). A general title is “broad,","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"comprehensive, and generic as opposed to a restrictive title that is specific and","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"narrow.” Kiga, 144 Wn.2d at 825. We liberally construe general titles, recognizing","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"the need for legislation to encompass incidental topics so long as there is “‘some","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"8","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"rational unity between the general subject and the incidental subdivisions.’” Wash.","paragraph_id":"para_175","court_paragraph":8},{"text":"Ass’n for Substance Abuse & Violence Prevention v. State, 174 Wn.2d 642, 656, 278","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"P.3d 632 (2012) (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting State v. Grisby, 97","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"Wn.2d 493, 498, 647 P.2d 6 (1982)). Still, liberal construction is not a rubber stamp,","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"and we have invalidated several enactments with general titles when they","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"encompassed more than one subject. Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 217","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"(holding that an initiative with a general title violated article II, section 19 because","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"“there is no rational unity between the subjects”); Garfield, 196 Wn.2d at 387 (“[W]e","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"do not shirk from our responsibility to enforce the constitution’s mandates.”).","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"In examining the relationship among the provisions of a bill or initiative, our","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"“rational unity” inquiry requires there be unity “among all matters included within","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"the measure and the general topic expressed in the title.” Kiga, 144 Wn.2d at 826","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"(emphasis added); Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 212 (“[R]egardless of what","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"is in the Voters Pamphlet or the history of the initiative, the rational relationship","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"inquiry centers on what is in the measure itself, i.e., whether the measure contains","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"unrelated laws.”). It is not sufficient that all provisions rationally relate to the","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"general title; there must also be rational unity among the provisions. Stated","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"differently, the single-subject requirement in article II, section 19 demands both","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"horizontal rational unity, i.e., all provisions rationally relate to one another, and","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"vertical rational unity, i.e., each provision rationally relates to the general title. See,","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"9","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"e.g., Barde v. State, 90 Wn.2d 470, 472, 584 P.2d 390 (1978) (holding a legislative","paragraph_id":"para_197","court_paragraph":9},{"text":"enactment violated article II, section 19 because two provisions did not share rational","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"unity despite nominally appearing to “both relate to personal property”); Amalg.","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 217 (invalidating an initiative because it contained “no","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"rational unity between the subjects” and “neither subject is necessary to implement","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"the other”).","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"Here, the parties do not dispute that I-2066’s title is general in nature. CP at","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"640; Resp’ts’ Br. at 20; Br. of Appellants-Intervenors BIAW at 20; Br. of Appellant","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"State of Wash. at 17-19. We agree, as the title is sufficiently “broad, comprehensive,","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"and generic” to be categorized as general. Kiga, 144 Wn.2d at 825. To satisfy the","paragraph_id":"para_206"},{"text":"requirements of article II, section 19, all of I-2066’s provisions must have horizontal","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"rational unity with one another and vertical rational unity with its general title.","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"Rational unity involves a fact-specific inquiry, and our prior applications of the rule","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"are instructive.","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"We have often found it permissible for legislation containing a general title to","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"regulate incidental subjects within a larger subject. For example, an initiative did","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"not violate the single-subject requirement when it addressed two distinct methods of","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"“trapping and killing mammals” because each method had rational unity with the","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"others and with the general title. Citizens for Responsible Wildlife Mgmt. v. State,","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"149 Wn.2d 622, 639, 71 P.3d 644 (2003). Another initiative permissibly contained","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"10","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"a provision repealing a law that authorized certain deductions by state employees for","paragraph_id":"para_219","court_paragraph":10},{"text":"political committee donations. Wash. Fed’n of State Emps. v. State, 127 Wn.2d 544,","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"548, 901 P.2d 1028 (1995). We found a “rational nexus” between this provision and","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"the ballot’s general title2 because its primary purpose was to “eliminate[] one method","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"of making contributions to political committees” and, by extension, political","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"campaigns. Id. at 557. We determined that repealing this authorization was","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"reasonably related to the subject of limiting campaign contributions. More","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"generally, we have reasoned that provisions necessary to the implementation of one","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"another are generally rationally related. See Wash. Ass’n of Neigh. Stores v. State,","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"149 Wn.2d 359, 370, 70 P.3d 920 (2003), abrogated in part on other grounds by","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"Filo Foods, 183 Wn.2d at 782 n.4; cf. Citizens for Responsible Wildlife, 149 Wn.2d","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"at 638 (“An analysis of whether the incidental subjects are germane to one another","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"does not necessitate a conclusion that they are necessary to implement each other,","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"although that may be one way to do so.”).","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"History and context matter. When the legislature has historically paired issues","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"together in legislation, that past practice provides strong evidence of horizontal","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"rational unity for single-subject purposes. Wash. Ass’n for Substance Abuse, 174","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"Wn.2d at 657. For example, this court found no single-subject violation in an","paragraph_id":"para_236"},{"text":"2 The ballot title in that case asked, “‘Shall campaign contributions be limited; public funding of","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"state and local campaigns be prohibited; and campaign related activities be restricted?’” Wash.","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"Fed’n of State Emps., 127 Wn.2d at 555 (quoting court papers).","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"11","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"initiative that earmarked general public safety funds for use by local governments as","paragraph_id":"para_242","court_paragraph":11},{"text":"part of a broader enactment regulating liquor because “liquor has an obvious","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"connection to broader public safety concerns than might feasibly be addressed by a","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"more limited earmark.” Id. (determining that “the legislature’s recognition of the","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"relationship between liquor regulation and public welfare supports [the] finding that","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"these issues share rational unity”). Thus, while the subject of public safety could be","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"seen as distinct from liquor regulation, in this historical context, rational unity was","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"present because the legislature had long regulated those two subjects together.","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"Finally, our rational unity analysis considers the substance of legislation. We","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"give latitude to precatory language in policy expressions (“policy fluff”), even when","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"it is unrelated to the title or to other provisions because such provisions are not","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"legally operative. Pierce County v. State, 150 Wn.2d 422, 435-36 78 P.3d 640","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"(2003) (“[P]recatory language cannot yield additional ‘subjects’ for article II, section","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"19 purposes.”).","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"In considering past bills and initiatives, we have consistently concluded that","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"enactments violate the single-subject requirement when their provisions have","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"distinct regulatory effects because of the lack of rational unity between such","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"provisions. For example, we invalidated an initiative that contained separate","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"provisions for both a one-time action (authorization to build a road) and a broader","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"systematic change in the law (establishing and operating a system of toll roads).","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"12","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"Wash. Toll Bridge Auth. v. State, 49 Wn.2d 520, 521-25, 304 P.2d 676 (1956).","paragraph_id":"para_264","court_paragraph":12},{"text":"Similarly, in Kiga, we invalidated an enactment that combined a one-time","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"nullification and refund of taxes with systematic changes to the property tax","paragraph_id":"para_266"},{"text":"assessment system. 144 Wn.2d at 827. We noted that “[t]he broad language of the","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"repeal and refund provision effectively implicates utility charges, hospital charges,","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"housing authority rents, city moorage rates, park district admissions, port district","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"cold storage charges, and numerous other ‘monetary charges.’” Id. Though the","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"provision was a one-time action, its effects were far more widespread than the","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"ongoing, focused changes the initiative made to the way in which property taxes","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"were to be assessed. Id.; see also Citizens for Responsible Wildlife, 149 Wn.2d at","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"637 (noting that when one provision is “more broad, long term and continuing than","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"the other, [it] suggests logrolling may be at issue”).","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"Our analysis further considers purpose in identifying legislative subjects. In","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"Amalgamated Transit Union, we invalidated an initiative that had “two purposes: to","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"specifically set license tab fees at $30 and to provide a continuing method of","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"approving all future tax increases.” 142 Wn.2d at 217. One provision repealed a tax","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"as the means through which to implement $30 license tab fees while the other created","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"a voter approval requirement for future taxes. Both provisions nominally involved","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"taxes, but we recognized that the enactment’s two purposes lacked what may be","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"called horizontal rational unity because their primary purpose differed substantially.","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"13","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"See id. at 216-17 (“Further, neither [provision] is necessary to implement the","paragraph_id":"para_286","court_paragraph":13},{"text":"other.”).","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"Finally, in Garfield, we held that enactments joining together separate","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"provisions with unrelated local and statewide effects lack horizontal rational unity.","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"196 Wn.2d at 397. Specifically, we determined that an initiative limiting vehicle","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"taxes and fees violated the single-subject rule by also including an errant specific","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"directive requiring Sound Transit to retire, refinance, or sell certain bonds. Id. at","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"393. We concluded that the specific directive to a “single regional transportation","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"district” added a separate subject to provisions with otherwise statewide effects on","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"motor vehicle excise taxes. Id. at 396-97 (describing the single-subject problem as","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"“combining a requirement to retire, defease, or refinance existing bonds that secure","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"a specific existing project with more general statutory changes”).","paragraph_id":"para_297"},{"text":"II. I-2066 Violates the Single-Subject Requirement Contained in Article II,","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"Section 19 of the Washington Constitution","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"This matter is before us on review of the superior court’s order granting","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"summary judgment to Climate Solutions and invalidating I-2066. We review a trial","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"court’s grant of summary judgment de novo. Id. at 386. We presume initiatives, as","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"legislative enactments, are constitutional and the challenger must convince the court","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"with “argument and research” that “after a searching legal analysis, . . . the statute","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"14","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"violates the constitution.”3 Island County v. State, 135 Wn.2d 141, 147, 955 P.2d","paragraph_id":"para_307","court_paragraph":14},{"text":"377 (1998); Garfield, 196 Wn.2d at 386. Rules of statutory construction apply to","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"initiatives, and the court’s purpose is to discern and effectuate the intent of the voters","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"“acting in their legislative capacity.” Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 205. We","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"read initiatives to the people “as the average informed lay voter would read them,”","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"giving words their ordinary meaning and avoiding technical or specialized legal","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"constructions. Garfield, 196 Wn.2d at 386. As with statutes enacted by the","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"legislature, it is not our role to substitute our perceived “‘better judgment’” for that","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"of the voters, and, just as importantly, we will not strain to construe otherwise","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"unconstitutional enactments as valid based on policy preferences. Amalg. Transit","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"Union, 142 Wn.2d at 206 (quoting Fritz v. Gorton, 83 Wn.2d 275, 287, 517 P.2d","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"911 (1974)).","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"Drawing on our precedent and the principle expressed in the single-subject","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"requirement of article II, section 19, we consider the specific provisions of I-2066.","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"While the parties agree that I-2066 bears a general title, they do not agree on what","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"3 At times, we have described the standard of review as requiring a challenger to demonstrate","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"that a statute is unconstitutional “beyond a reasonable doubt.” This is not an evidentiary","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"standard but rather a “reflection of ‘respect for the legislature’” insofar as duly enacted","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"legislation is a direct expression of the people’s will. Quinn v. State, 1 Wn.3d 453, 471 n.9, 526","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"P.3d 1 (2023) (quoting Sch. Dists.’ All. for Adequate Funding of Special Educ. v. State, 170","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"Wn.2d 599, 606, 244 P.3d 1 (2010)). “‘Beyond a reasonable doubt’ in this context merely means","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"that . . . we will not strike a duly enacted statute unless we are ‘fully convinced, after a searching","paragraph_id":"para_328"},{"text":"legal analysis, that the statute violates the constitution.’” Sch. Dists., 170 Wn.2d at 606 (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_329"},{"text":"Island County v. State, 135 Wn.2d 141, 147, 955 P.2d 377 (1998)).","paragraph_id":"para_330"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_331"},{"text":"15","paragraph_id":"para_332"},{"text":"constitutes the initiative’s subject. The State formulates the subject as protecting","paragraph_id":"para_333","court_paragraph":15},{"text":"natural gas access and use, while BIAW argues that the initiative has a broader","paragraph_id":"para_334"},{"text":"subject, “preserving energy choice,” which encompasses the State’s formulation of","paragraph_id":"para_335"},{"text":"the subject. The State and BIAW argue that both of their proposed subjects","paragraph_id":"para_336"},{"text":"encompass incidental subjects designed to ensure demand for and supply of natural","paragraph_id":"para_337"},{"text":"gas. Climate Solutions disagrees, arguing that “I-2066 combines at least six distinct","paragraph_id":"para_338"},{"text":"subjects,” which include natural gas access but also “air pollution regulation,","paragraph_id":"para_339"},{"text":"building codes, and utility ratemaking, [while also] reshaping policies for fossil fuels","paragraph_id":"para_340"},{"text":"of all types.” Resp’ts’ Br. at 22-23.","paragraph_id":"para_341"},{"text":"We have long recognized that though it is permissible for initiatives with","paragraph_id":"para_342"},{"text":"general titles to encompass incidental subjects, this flexibility is not unlimited. I-","paragraph_id":"para_343"},{"text":"2066 regulates several discrete subjects because it includes provisions with","paragraph_id":"para_344"},{"text":"substantially distinct regulatory effects, e.g., requiring statewide natural gas access","paragraph_id":"para_345"},{"text":"and use, limiting local authority over air quality standards, amending statewide","paragraph_id":"para_346"},{"text":"building codes, and repealing the Decarbonization Act’s severability clause. These","paragraph_id":"para_347"},{"text":"distinct subjects encompass a wide range of issues through provisions with distinct","paragraph_id":"para_348"},{"text":"regulatory effects, resulting in a lack of rational unity under article II, section 19.4","paragraph_id":"para_349"},{"text":"4 Justice Mungia’s dissent describes the “first step in the rational unity analysis [as] examining","paragraph_id":"para_350"},{"text":"the subject expressed in the initiative’s title and its scope.” Dissent at 7. Our precedent holds","paragraph_id":"para_351"},{"text":"otherwise, recognizing that article II, section 19 requires all provisions of an enactment to share","paragraph_id":"para_352"},{"text":"rational unity with one another and with the enactment’s general title. See, e.g., Barde, 90","paragraph_id":"para_353"},{"text":"Wn.2d at 472 (finding that the provisions did not rationally relate to one another and thus the","paragraph_id":"para_354"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_355"},{"text":"16","paragraph_id":"para_356"},{"text":"First, I-2066 ensures that natural gas must be accessible to any consumer who","paragraph_id":"para_357","court_paragraph":16},{"text":"wants to use it as an energy source. Sections 2, 3, and 4 of the initiative require gas","paragraph_id":"para_358"},{"text":"companies, large combination utilities, and certain cities or towns to provide natural","paragraph_id":"para_359"},{"text":"gas to eligible consumers in their service areas while simultaneously preventing","paragraph_id":"para_360"},{"text":"UTC from approving rate plans that might act to restrict such access. This","paragraph_id":"para_361"},{"text":"affirmative responsibility is broad in its application but narrow in its subject matter.","paragraph_id":"para_362"},{"text":"Put simply, it seeks to ensure a steady supply of natural gas by directly regulating","paragraph_id":"para_363"},{"text":"the entities responsible for its delivery to consumers.","paragraph_id":"para_364"},{"text":"Second, section 11 of I-2066 addresses the subject of air quality by adding a","paragraph_id":"para_365"},{"text":"provision to Washington’s Clean Air Act, ch. 70A.15 RCW, that prohibits air","paragraph_id":"para_366"},{"text":"pollution control agencies from “in any way prohibit[ing], penaliz[ing], or","paragraph_id":"para_367"},{"text":"discourag[ing] the use of gas for any form of heating, or for uses related to any","paragraph_id":"para_368"},{"text":"appliance or equipment, in any building.” CP at 674-75. The State and BIAW frame","paragraph_id":"para_369"},{"text":"the changes to Clean Air Act emission goals as necessary to remove impediments to","paragraph_id":"para_370"},{"text":"natural gas demand and supply, but this is belied by the fact that these amendments","paragraph_id":"para_371"},{"text":"have distinct primary purposes and far-reaching effects. As amici point out, “Under","paragraph_id":"para_372"},{"text":"the Initiative’s amendment, local authorities may no longer implement any of","paragraph_id":"para_373"},{"text":"Ecology’s emissions standards relating to gas in buildings as any such standards may","paragraph_id":"para_374"},{"text":"enactment violated the single-subject rule); Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 217 (same).","paragraph_id":"para_375"},{"text":"Determining whether such rational unity exists necessitates looking at both the general title and","paragraph_id":"para_376"},{"text":"the body of the law at issue.","paragraph_id":"para_377"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_378"},{"text":"17","paragraph_id":"para_379"},{"text":"be deemed to ‘discourage’ the use of gas.” Br. of Amici Curiae Offs. at 33-34.","paragraph_id":"para_380","court_paragraph":17},{"text":"Another amici’s brief explains how “[a]ppliances that burn gas also release multiple","paragraph_id":"para_381"},{"text":"other air pollutants, including nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), fine","paragraph_id":"para_382"},{"text":"particulate matter (PM2.5), ultrafine particulate matter (UFP), and carcinogens such","paragraph_id":"para_383"},{"text":"as formaldehyde, benzene, and toluene, which are hazardous air pollutants.” Amicus","paragraph_id":"para_384"},{"text":"Curiae Br. of Physicians for Soc. Responsibility et al. at 7-8. Section 11’s primary","paragraph_id":"para_385"},{"text":"effect is that an air pollution control agency is powerless to prevent the health effects","paragraph_id":"para_386"},{"text":"of any emissions that are produced by any appliance, system, or building that might","paragraph_id":"para_387"},{"text":"conceivably burn gas. This restraint creates a glaring loophole in the Clean Air Act","paragraph_id":"para_388"},{"text":"by substantially limiting the authority of enforcement entities to regulate air quality","paragraph_id":"para_389"},{"text":"in any manner that could “in any way” discourage the use of gas. While BIAW","paragraph_id":"para_390"},{"text":"argues that the legislature has a long history of regulating the supply and demand of","paragraph_id":"para_391"},{"text":"energy in one piece of legislation, they fail to identify examples of the legislature","paragraph_id":"para_392"},{"text":"regulating the demand and supply of energy together with substantial restraints on","paragraph_id":"para_393"},{"text":"the authority of air pollution control agencies. Instead, they rely on an overly broad","paragraph_id":"para_394"},{"text":"construction of demand and supply to include such subjects in its ambit.","paragraph_id":"para_395"},{"text":"Air pollution control agencies are not, however, responsible for regulating or","paragraph_id":"para_396"},{"text":"controlling the demand and supply of energy. Instead, their actions only incidentally","paragraph_id":"para_397"},{"text":"affect an individual’s right to burn natural gas—and any other fossil fuel—through","paragraph_id":"para_398"},{"text":"the imposition of regional air quality standards. Like in Barde, the fact that two","paragraph_id":"para_399"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_400"},{"text":"18","paragraph_id":"para_401"},{"text":"provisions are nominally related does not mean that they share the required","paragraph_id":"para_402","court_paragraph":18},{"text":"horizontal rational unity. 90 Wn.2d at 472 (noting that while two provisions “both","paragraph_id":"para_403"},{"text":"relate[d] to personal property” and thus shared a nominal similarity, there was no","paragraph_id":"para_404"},{"text":"rational unity between them because the direct operative effect of each provision","paragraph_id":"para_405"},{"text":"differed); see also Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 217 (finding two provisions","paragraph_id":"para_406"},{"text":"lacked rational unity because of their distinct regulatory effects even though both","paragraph_id":"para_407"},{"text":"nominally dealt with taxes). We agree with Climate Solutions that if air quality","paragraph_id":"para_408"},{"text":"standards fall within the scope of regulating demand and supply, then “virtually any","paragraph_id":"para_409"},{"text":"provisions that inconvenience or increase the cost of natural gas—taxes on gas","paragraph_id":"para_410"},{"text":"appliances, workplace or pipeline safety rules, consumer protection disclosures","paragraph_id":"para_411"},{"text":"about carbon monoxide risks, or even zoning setbacks for gas infrastructure—could","paragraph_id":"para_412"},{"text":"be swept into the same measure.” Resp’ts’ Br. at 26. Article II, section 19 demands","paragraph_id":"para_413"},{"text":"rational unity among a measure’s provisions and does not contemplate so broad a","paragraph_id":"para_414"},{"text":"scope. Because Section 11’s targeted and total restraint on the authority of local air","paragraph_id":"para_415"},{"text":"quality regulators to regulate all fossil fuels has a distinct primary purpose from","paragraph_id":"para_416"},{"text":"regulating the demand and supply of energy, as well as broader effects, it introduces","paragraph_id":"para_417"},{"text":"a separate subject.","paragraph_id":"para_418"},{"text":"Third, I-2066 repeals zero-emissions goals in the state energy code and","paragraph_id":"para_419"},{"text":"restricts the state building code council from taking any action to limit access to gas.","paragraph_id":"para_420"},{"text":"Specifically, section 6 repeals sections of the “Washington State Energy Code” that","paragraph_id":"para_421"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_422"},{"text":"19","paragraph_id":"para_423"},{"text":"were designed to “help achieve the broader goal of building zero fossil-fuel","paragraph_id":"para_424","court_paragraph":19},{"text":"greenhouse gas emission homes and buildings.” CP at 671 (strikethrough omitted).","paragraph_id":"para_425"},{"text":"It also prohibits statewide energy and building codes from enacting provisions or","paragraph_id":"para_426"},{"text":"taking actions that “in any way prohibit, penalize, or discourage the use of gas.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_427"},{"text":"The primary regulatory effect of these provisions is to broadly limit the authority of","paragraph_id":"para_428"},{"text":"Washington’s statewide building code council and to require statewide changes to","paragraph_id":"para_429"},{"text":"construction standards, a constitutionally distinct subject from requiring local","paragraph_id":"para_430"},{"text":"entities to provide natural gas and restricting the authority of local air quality","paragraph_id":"para_431"},{"text":"regulators.","paragraph_id":"para_432"},{"text":"Finally, I-2066 amends the Decarbonization Act, including by repealing its","paragraph_id":"para_433"},{"text":"severability clause. The State and BIAW argue that repealing a severability clause","paragraph_id":"para_434"},{"text":"does not introduce a separate subject because such a change lacks any legal effect.","paragraph_id":"para_435"},{"text":"We disagree. The repeal of a severability clause is not the same as mere “policy","paragraph_id":"para_436"},{"text":"fluff,” which does not create a distinct subject. Pierce County, 150 Wn.2d at 435-","paragraph_id":"para_437"},{"text":"36. A policy statement lacks legal effect by definition. Id. In contrast, a severability","paragraph_id":"para_438"},{"text":"clause has a clear legal effect, and it is immaterial that “[s]everability clauses become","paragraph_id":"para_439"},{"text":"relevant only after a court holds ‘invalid’ one or more provisions of a larger act.”","paragraph_id":"para_440"},{"text":"Reply Br. of Appellants-Intervenors BIAW at 11 (quoting Amalg. Transit Union,","paragraph_id":"para_441"},{"text":"142 Wn.2d at 228). A severability clause plays a role in our assessment of whether","paragraph_id":"para_442"},{"text":"a statute constitutes an integrated whole or comprises severable parts and thus has","paragraph_id":"para_443"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_444"},{"text":"20","paragraph_id":"para_445"},{"text":"legal effect. El Centro De La Raza v. State, 192 Wn.2d 103, 132, 428 P.3d 1143","paragraph_id":"para_446","court_paragraph":20},{"text":"(2018) (plurality opinion) (“[W]hen legislation includes a severability clause, it","paragraph_id":"para_447"},{"text":"‘provide[s] the necessary assurance that the Legislature would have enacted the","paragraph_id":"para_448"},{"text":"appropriate sections of the legislation despite the unconstitutional sections.’”","paragraph_id":"para_449"},{"text":"(second alteration in original) (quoting Gerberding v. Munro, 134 Wn.2d 188, 197,","paragraph_id":"para_450"},{"text":"949 P.2d 1366 (1998))). All provisions of an initiative must share horizontal rational","paragraph_id":"para_451"},{"text":"unity with one another and vertical rational unity with the general subject. Kiga,","paragraph_id":"para_452"},{"text":"144 Wn.2d at 826. Repealing the Decarbonization Act’s severability clause lacks","paragraph_id":"para_453"},{"text":"rational unity with the other subjects we have identified because it has a distinct","paragraph_id":"para_454"},{"text":"regulatory purpose.","paragraph_id":"para_455"},{"text":"III. I-2066 Is Not the Unique Type of Comprehensive “Omnibus Legislation”","paragraph_id":"para_456"},{"text":"Addressed in In Re Boot","paragraph_id":"para_457"},{"text":"In an effort to justify I-2066’s wide-ranging provisions, the State and BIAW","paragraph_id":"para_458"},{"text":"point to cases where the “Legislature [has] found it necessary to combine diverse","paragraph_id":"para_459"},{"text":"provisions into a single omnibus act to address a single problem in a comprehensive","paragraph_id":"para_460"},{"text":"way.” In re Boot, 130 Wn.2d 553, 568, 925 P.2d 964 (1996) (emphasis added)","paragraph_id":"para_461"},{"text":"(holding that a 213-page bill with 190 sections did not violate the single-subject","paragraph_id":"para_462"},{"text":"requirement). We take this opportunity to clarify that article II, section 19 does not","paragraph_id":"para_463"},{"text":"contain an explicit exception for omnibus legislation. Rather, all provisions of a bill","paragraph_id":"para_464"},{"text":"or initiative must have “rational unity” to the general subject and to one another.","paragraph_id":"para_465"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_466"},{"text":"21","paragraph_id":"para_467"},{"text":"However, given the fact-specific nature of our single-subject inquiry, whether","paragraph_id":"para_468","court_paragraph":21},{"text":"diverse provisions in omnibus legislation have rational unity depends on the breadth","paragraph_id":"para_469"},{"text":"of the problem and the comprehensive nature of the effort required to address it.","paragraph_id":"para_470"},{"text":"In re Boot examined an amendment to the Basic Juvenile Court Act, enacted","paragraph_id":"para_471"},{"text":"as part of the omnibus violence prevention act of 1994. LAWS OF 1994, 1st Spec.","paragraph_id":"para_472"},{"text":"Sess., ch. 7. This enactment covered “a number of issues, including public health,","paragraph_id":"para_473"},{"text":"community networks, firearms and other weapons, public safety, education,","paragraph_id":"para_474"},{"text":"employment, and media.” In re Boot, 130 Wn.2d at 565-66. We held that while the","paragraph_id":"para_475"},{"text":"Act “covers a variety of subjects,” these subjects share rational unity because the","paragraph_id":"para_476"},{"text":"“Legislature found it necessary to combine diverse provisions into a single omnibus","paragraph_id":"para_477"},{"text":"act to address a single problem,” violence prevention, “in a comprehensive manner.”","paragraph_id":"para_478"},{"text":"Id. at 566, 568. Because the problem to be addressed was broadly described and","paragraph_id":"para_479"},{"text":"comprehensively addressed, the bill was consistent with the single-subject","paragraph_id":"para_480"},{"text":"requirement of article II, section 19. Similarly, in Doriot v. State, the Court of","paragraph_id":"para_481"},{"text":"Appeals held that in crafting legislation in the face of a complex, multifaceted","paragraph_id":"para_482"},{"text":"problem such as transportation resources, the legislature could rationally use a","paragraph_id":"para_483"},{"text":"comprehensive approach incorporating diverse incidental subjects aimed at directly","paragraph_id":"para_484"},{"text":"addressing that problem. 32 Wn. App. 2d 770, 774, 783, 561 P.3d 1208 (2024)","paragraph_id":"para_485"},{"text":"(finding a 121-page omnibus transportation bill did not violate article II, section 19,","paragraph_id":"para_486"},{"text":"because it “reflects the legislature’s effort to address a single problem, transportation","paragraph_id":"para_487"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_488"},{"text":"22","paragraph_id":"para_489"},{"text":"resources, in a comprehensive manner”). Indeed, we have found omnibus legislation","paragraph_id":"para_490","court_paragraph":22},{"text":"to be consistent with the single-subject requirement precisely because it","paragraph_id":"para_491"},{"text":"comprehensively tackles a single problem in contrast to legislation addressing only","paragraph_id":"para_492"},{"text":"a specific part of a problem that does not rationally incorporate such diverse and","paragraph_id":"para_493"},{"text":"attendant subjects.","paragraph_id":"para_494"},{"text":"I-2066 is not omnibus legislation under our precedent because it does not","paragraph_id":"para_495"},{"text":"address “a single problem . . . in a comprehensive manner.” In re Boot, 130 Wn.2d","paragraph_id":"para_496"},{"text":"at 568. Even if we accept BIAW’s contention that the broad issue I-2066 seeks to","paragraph_id":"para_497"},{"text":"address is “preserving energy choice,” Br. of Appellants-Intervenors BIAW at 1, the","paragraph_id":"para_498"},{"text":"measure is nowhere near as comprehensive as the violence prevention enactment in","paragraph_id":"para_499"},{"text":"In re Boot or the transportation legislation in Doriot. Rather, in patchwork fashion,","paragraph_id":"para_500"},{"text":"I-2066 sets out several discrete policy measures, with sections that govern the","paragraph_id":"para_501"},{"text":"provision and use of natural gas by utilities, remove zero-emission goals, restrict","paragraph_id":"para_502"},{"text":"local government authority, and enact statewide reforms to building and energy","paragraph_id":"para_503"},{"text":"codes. These sections operate separately and do not comprehensively regulate","paragraph_id":"para_504"},{"text":"energy choice for the people of Washington. Even if we were to narrow the scope","paragraph_id":"para_505"},{"text":"of the issue I-2066 addresses and accept the State’s contention that the initiative","paragraph_id":"para_506"},{"text":"seeks only to protect natural gas access and use, I-2066 still does not","paragraph_id":"para_507"},{"text":"comprehensively address this issue. For example, I-2066 restricts local government,","paragraph_id":"para_508"},{"text":"utility, and local air pollution control authority over natural gas supply and","paragraph_id":"para_509"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_510"},{"text":"23","paragraph_id":"para_511"},{"text":"emissions, but it does not address the statewide regulation of natural gas supply and","paragraph_id":"para_512","court_paragraph":23},{"text":"demand.","paragraph_id":"para_513"},{"text":"Instead, I-2066’s diverse provisions enact distinct policies with discrete","paragraph_id":"para_514"},{"text":"regulatory effects and therefore do not share rational unity as “omnibus legislation.”","paragraph_id":"para_515"},{"text":"Because I-2066 combines them in one initiative, we find that it violates the single-","paragraph_id":"para_516"},{"text":"subject rule contained in article II, section 19.","paragraph_id":"para_517"},{"text":"IV. It Is Impossible To Sever the Provisions of I-2066 That Violate the Single-","paragraph_id":"para_518"},{"text":"Subject Rule, and Therefore the Entire Initiative Is Unconstitutional Under","paragraph_id":"para_519"},{"text":"Article II, Section 19","paragraph_id":"para_520"},{"text":"I-2066 is not amenable to severance, despite the initiative drafters’ inclusion","paragraph_id":"para_521"},{"text":"of a severability clause. I-2066, § 13. The situation presented is similar to prior","paragraph_id":"para_522"},{"text":"cases in which we have recognized that the constitution does not allow courts to","paragraph_id":"para_523"},{"text":"choose between subjects lacking rational unity and the single-subject violation","paragraph_id":"para_524"},{"text":"required invalidating the measure in its entirety. 5 For example, in Power, Inc. v.","paragraph_id":"para_525"},{"text":"Huntley, we examined legislation that made a variety of new appropriations while","paragraph_id":"para_526"},{"text":"5 In dissent, Justice Mungia agrees that subsection 12(5) is a constitutionally distinct subject but","paragraph_id":"para_527"},{"text":"would sever it from the rest of I-2066. It is unclear on what basis the dissent can confidently","paragraph_id":"para_528"},{"text":"conclude that the constitutionally distinct subject located in subsection 12(5) is not “equal and","paragraph_id":"para_529"},{"text":"distinct” such that “a court can clearly tell that the bulk of the initiative would have passed","paragraph_id":"para_530"},{"text":"absent subsection 12(5).” Dissent at 29. The dissent’s choice to elevate one constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_531"},{"text":"subject over another places the court in the position of supplanting the role of voters based on its","paragraph_id":"para_532"},{"text":"own assessments of a subject’s primacy, despite the fact that “[i]t is still impossible to determine","paragraph_id":"para_533"},{"text":"how many people voted for one provision and how many for the other.” Lee, 185 Wn.2d at 627.","paragraph_id":"para_534"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_535"},{"text":"24","paragraph_id":"para_536"},{"text":"also enacting a new corporate income tax. 39 Wn.2d 191, 192-93, 235 P.2d 173","paragraph_id":"para_537","court_paragraph":24},{"text":"(1951). We found the legislation void in its entirety because “‘both the title and the","paragraph_id":"para_538"},{"text":"body of the act embrace[d] two unrelated subjects’” and it was impossible to","paragraph_id":"para_539"},{"text":"determine which of the two subjects the legislature would have enacted on their own","paragraph_id":"para_540"},{"text":"merits. Id. at 198-201 (quoting Jackson v. State ex rel. S. Bend Motor Bus Co., 194","paragraph_id":"para_541"},{"text":"Ind. 248, 259, 142 N.E. 423 (1924)) (“We have here a situation in which neither the","paragraph_id":"para_542"},{"text":"appropriation bill . . . nor the corporation income tax bill . . . standing on its own","paragraph_id":"para_543"},{"text":"merits, could pass the legislature in the special session.”). This conclusion made it","paragraph_id":"para_544"},{"text":"unnecessary to decide whether either of the bill’s two subjects could be severed if","paragraph_id":"para_545"},{"text":"they did not share rational unity with the title.","paragraph_id":"para_546"},{"text":"Similarly, in Kiga, we declined to examine the title to determine whether","paragraph_id":"para_547"},{"text":"either of the initiative’s separate subjects could be severed and saved, noting that it","paragraph_id":"para_548"},{"text":"was “impossible for the court to assess whether either subject would have received","paragraph_id":"para_549"},{"text":"majority support if voted on separately[, and so] the entire initiative must be voided.”","paragraph_id":"para_550"},{"text":"144 Wn.2d at 825; accord Lee, 185 Wn.2d at 627 (finding a single-subject violation","paragraph_id":"para_551"},{"text":"rendered the initiative void in its entirety without reaching additional constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_552"},{"text":"arguments because “[i]t is . . . impossible to determine how many people voted for","paragraph_id":"para_553"},{"text":"one provision and how many for the other”). This line of reasoning applies here and","paragraph_id":"para_554"},{"text":"accords with our general approach to severability that is faithful to the antilogrolling","paragraph_id":"para_555"},{"text":"principles underpinning article II, section 19.","paragraph_id":"para_556"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_557"},{"text":"25","paragraph_id":"para_558"},{"text":"Kiga did not conduct a severability analysis, however, and we conduct one","paragraph_id":"para_559","court_paragraph":25},{"text":"here to demonstrate why it is impossible to determine which of I-2066’s distinct","paragraph_id":"para_560"},{"text":"subjects would have received majority support from the voters. In conducting this","paragraph_id":"para_561"},{"text":"analysis, we carefully examine invalid provisions to determine whether they can be","paragraph_id":"para_562"},{"text":"severed from the remainder of the enactment. We ask whether “the legislative body","paragraph_id":"para_563"},{"text":"would have passed one without the other,” and if the “elimination of the invalid part","paragraph_id":"para_564"},{"text":"would render the remaining part useless to accomplish the legislative purposes.”","paragraph_id":"para_565"},{"text":"Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 227-28; League of Women Voters of Wash. v.","paragraph_id":"para_566"},{"text":"State, 184 Wn.2d 393, 410-11, 355 P.3d 1131 (2015). A severability clause provides","paragraph_id":"para_567"},{"text":"some assurance that a law is intended to be severable, but it is not dispositive in our","paragraph_id":"para_568"},{"text":"analysis. Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 228. We may sever unconstitutional","paragraph_id":"para_569"},{"text":"provisions when “(a) the objectionable portions are severable in a way that a court","paragraph_id":"para_570"},{"text":"can presume the enacting body would have enacted the valid portion without the","paragraph_id":"para_571"},{"text":"invalid portion, and (b) elimination of the invalid part would not render the","paragraph_id":"para_572"},{"text":"remainder of the act incapable of accomplishing the legislative purpose.” State v.","paragraph_id":"para_573"},{"text":"Broadaway, 133 Wn.2d 118, 128, 942 P.2d 363 (1997); El Centro De La Raza, 192","paragraph_id":"para_574"},{"text":"Wn.2d at 133 (finding a provision that violated article II, section 37 severable","paragraph_id":"para_575"},{"text":"because it “stands alone as a separate section of the [a]ct, it is the only provision that","paragraph_id":"para_576"},{"text":"addresses the collective bargaining rights of noncertified employees, and there is no","paragraph_id":"para_577"},{"text":"evidence the legislature would not have passed the [a]ct without it”). Applying these","paragraph_id":"para_578"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_579"},{"text":"26","paragraph_id":"para_580"},{"text":"principles, we have found legislative purpose is frustrated if severing the violative","paragraph_id":"para_581","court_paragraph":26},{"text":"provisions would require the court to conduct a “drastic rewrite of the statute” as","paragraph_id":"para_582"},{"text":"that is a “legislative task.” In re Parentage of C.A.M.A., 154 Wn.2d 52, 67-69, 109","paragraph_id":"para_583"},{"text":"P.3d 405 (2005); see also Amalg. Transit Union, 142 Wn.2d at 256 (striking down","paragraph_id":"para_584"},{"text":"an initiative in its entirety, in part because it violated “several state constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_585"},{"text":"provisions”).","paragraph_id":"para_586"},{"text":"Here, I-2066 contains four constitutionally distinct subjects and a severability","paragraph_id":"para_587"},{"text":"clause. It is impossible for us to assess which of these four subjects, if any, would","paragraph_id":"para_588"},{"text":"have received majority support had they been presented alone at the November 2024","paragraph_id":"para_589"},{"text":"general election. The title does not provide much guidance and moreover, the title","paragraph_id":"para_590"},{"text":"is not dispositive in this determination because we must presume voters read and","paragraph_id":"para_591"},{"text":"enacted the measure in its entirety. Sane Transit v. Sound Transit, 151 Wn.2d 60,","paragraph_id":"para_592"},{"text":"71, 85 P.3d 346 (2004). I-2066’s severability clause does not aid our analysis","paragraph_id":"para_593"},{"text":"because deciding which subject or subjects to sever from the initiative would","paragraph_id":"para_594"},{"text":"improperly require us to characterize one of I-2066’s several subjects as primary and","paragraph_id":"para_595"},{"text":"others as secondary. Such an exercise goes beyond the bounds of judicial","paragraph_id":"para_596"},{"text":"construction and constitutional interpretation.","paragraph_id":"para_597"},{"text":"As we have repeatedly affirmed in our severability jurisprudence, “unless we","paragraph_id":"para_598"},{"text":"conclude the legislature would have passed the statute absent the unconstitutional","paragraph_id":"para_599"},{"text":"provisions, the proper remedy is complete . . . invalidation.” C.A.M.A., 154 Wn.2d","paragraph_id":"para_600"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_601"},{"text":"27","paragraph_id":"para_602"},{"text":"at 67. In this case, it is impossible to determine which of I-2066’s distinct subjects,","paragraph_id":"para_603","court_paragraph":27},{"text":"if any, the voters would have passed standing on their own merits. Therefore, to","paragraph_id":"para_604"},{"text":"avoid “a drastic rewrite of the statute by the court,” we hold I-2066 unconstitutional","paragraph_id":"para_605"},{"text":"in its entirety. Id. at 69.","paragraph_id":"para_606"},{"text":"CONCLUSION","paragraph_id":"para_607"},{"text":"Article II, section 19 forbids combining separate subjects in a single bill or","paragraph_id":"para_608"},{"text":"initiative, requiring instead that distinct subjects be enacted separately to protect","paragraph_id":"para_609"},{"text":"against unconstitutional logrolling and to ensure transparency in the legislative","paragraph_id":"para_610"},{"text":"process. I-2066 violates this single-subject rule because it includes several","paragraph_id":"para_611"},{"text":"provisions with markedly distinct purposes and regulatory effects, embracing four","paragraph_id":"para_612"},{"text":"distinct subjects. It is not possible by judicial construction to sever and save any of","paragraph_id":"para_613"},{"text":"the separate provisions and therefore I-2066 is unconstitutional in its entirety. We","paragraph_id":"para_614"},{"text":"affirm the superior court on this narrow ground under the single-subject rule","paragraph_id":"para_615"},{"text":"contained in article II, section 19 and decline to reach the additional constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_616"},{"text":"arguments raised by the parties.","paragraph_id":"para_617"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_618"},{"text":"28","paragraph_id":"para_619"},{"text":"WE CONCUR:","paragraph_id":"para_620","court_paragraph":28},{"text":"___________________________ ____________________________","paragraph_id":"para_621"},{"text":"____________________________ ____________________________","paragraph_id":"para_622"},{"text":"____________________________ ____________________________","paragraph_id":"para_623"},{"text":"____________________________ ____________________________","paragraph_id":"para_624"},{"text":"_________________________________","paragraph_id":"para_625"},{"text":"Melody, J.","paragraph_id":"para_626"},{"text":"Madsen, J.P.T.","paragraph_id":"para_627"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al.","paragraph_id":"para_628"},{"text":"No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_629"},{"text":"MUNGIA, J. (dissenting)—The first power that the people of this state reserved","paragraph_id":"para_630"},{"text":"for themselves was the power to enact laws through the initiative process. CONST. art. II,","paragraph_id":"para_631"},{"text":"§ 1. The sanctity of this power is not something courts should simply give lip service to","paragraph_id":"para_632"},{"text":"or gloss over. It is an important, fundamental, and cherished constitutional right that","paragraph_id":"para_633"},{"text":"Washingtonians hold.","paragraph_id":"para_634"},{"text":"When the people of this state disagree with a law that the legislature has enacted,","paragraph_id":"para_635"},{"text":"they have the power to restrict the legislative act so long as the restriction complies with","paragraph_id":"para_636"},{"text":"our state constitution. Our courts have an obligation to interpret initiatives in a way that","paragraph_id":"para_637"},{"text":"sustains their validity when possible, and not in a way that will render them","paragraph_id":"para_638"},{"text":"unconstitutional.","paragraph_id":"para_639"},{"text":"That is the dispute here.","paragraph_id":"para_640"},{"text":"In 2024, the legislature enacted the Washington Decarbonization Act for Large","paragraph_id":"para_641"},{"text":"Combination Utilities, ch. 80.86 RCW. The Act would begin to phase out the use of","paragraph_id":"para_642"},{"text":"natural gas in this state. Shortly after the Act took effect, the people gathered sufficient","paragraph_id":"para_643"},{"text":"signatures to put Initiative 2066 (I-2066) on the ballot. The initiative passed.","paragraph_id":"para_644"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_645"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_646"},{"text":"2","paragraph_id":"para_647"},{"text":"I-2066 did not seek to repeal the Decarbonization Act. Instead, the goal was to","paragraph_id":"para_648","court_paragraph":2},{"text":"ensure that Washingtonians’ access to natural gas would continue. Whether the courts","paragraph_id":"para_649"},{"text":"agree that the people made a prudent policy choice or not does not factor into the analysis","paragraph_id":"para_650"},{"text":"as to whether I-2066 complies with constitutional requirements. What does enter the","paragraph_id":"para_651"},{"text":"analysis and, in fact, should be the lens through which courts determine whether an","paragraph_id":"para_652"},{"text":"initiative is constitutional, is that our review starts with the presumption that the law is","paragraph_id":"para_653"},{"text":"constitutional and that its language will be construed to uphold its validity, if possible.","paragraph_id":"para_654"},{"text":"I would hold that I-2066 meets constitutional requirements so long as sections 9,","paragraph_id":"para_655"},{"text":"10, 11, and subsection 12(5) are severed.","paragraph_id":"para_656"},{"text":"I accordingly dissent.","paragraph_id":"para_657"},{"text":"I","paragraph_id":"para_658"},{"text":"A LAW PASSED BY INITIATIVE MUST MEET CONSTITUTIONAL REQUIREMENTS. COURTS","paragraph_id":"para_659"},{"text":"WILL CONSTRUE THE INITIATIVE IN FAVOR OF FINDING IT CONSTITUTIONAL","paragraph_id":"para_660"},{"text":"In our constitution, the people of this state kept for themselves the power to","paragraph_id":"para_661"},{"text":"directly pass laws and to overturn laws passed by the legislature.","paragraph_id":"para_662"},{"text":"[T]he people reserve to themselves the power to propose bills, laws, and to","paragraph_id":"para_663"},{"text":"enact or reject the same at the polls, independent of the legislature, and also","paragraph_id":"para_664"},{"text":"reserve power, at their own option, to approve or reject at the polls any act,","paragraph_id":"para_665"},{"text":"item, section, or part of any bill, act, or law passed by the legislature.","paragraph_id":"para_666"},{"text":"CONST. art. II, § 1.","paragraph_id":"para_667"},{"text":"When analyzing the constitutionality of a law enacted through the initiative","paragraph_id":"para_668"},{"text":"process, courts start with the presumption that the law satisfies those requirements. Lee v.","paragraph_id":"para_669"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_670"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_671"},{"text":"3","paragraph_id":"para_672"},{"text":"State, 185 Wn.2d 608, 619, 374 P.3d 157 (2016). To overcome that presumption, a party","paragraph_id":"para_673","court_paragraph":3},{"text":"challenging the constitutionality of a law has the burden of demonstrating that the law","paragraph_id":"para_674"},{"text":"violates the state constitution. Amalg. Transit Union Loc. 587 v. State, 142 Wn.2d 183,","paragraph_id":"para_675"},{"text":"205, 11 P.3d 762 (2000) (ATU). In fact, we have held that the challenging party must","paragraph_id":"para_676"},{"text":"prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the law is unconstitutional.1 Id. While we have","paragraph_id":"para_677"},{"text":"used the term “beyond a reasonable doubt” in our prior cases when analyzing the","paragraph_id":"para_678"},{"text":"constitutionality of initiative-passed law, that term is more aptly used to describe the","paragraph_id":"para_679"},{"text":"burden of proof the State bears when seeking a criminal conviction. Even though the","paragraph_id":"para_680"},{"text":"phrase itself likely should not be used here, the essence of what is being conveyed","paragraph_id":"para_681"},{"text":"should. In short, any challenger has the burden of clearly and definitively proving that","paragraph_id":"para_682"},{"text":"the challenged initiative does not meet constitutional requirements while all presumptions","paragraph_id":"para_683"},{"text":"and interpretations go in favor of maintaining the constitutionality of the initiative.","paragraph_id":"para_684"},{"text":"All laws, whether enacted legislatively or by initiative, must comply with","paragraph_id":"para_685"},{"text":"Washington Constitution article II, sections 19 and 37. Section 19 requires:","paragraph_id":"para_686"},{"text":"No bill shall embrace more than one subject, and that shall be expressed in","paragraph_id":"para_687"},{"text":"the title.","paragraph_id":"para_688"},{"text":"CONST. art. II.","paragraph_id":"para_689"},{"text":"1 We have held that a challenger proves a statute is unconstitutional “beyond a reasonable doubt”","paragraph_id":"para_690"},{"text":"by fully convincing the court with legal analysis that the statute violates the constitution. Sch.","paragraph_id":"para_691"},{"text":"Dists.’ All. for Adequate Funding of Special Educ. v. State, 170 Wn.2d 599, 606, 244 P.3d 1","paragraph_id":"para_692"},{"text":"(2010). The meaning of the phrase “beyond a reasonable doubt” is much different in this context","paragraph_id":"para_693"},{"text":"than it is in the context of the State’s burden of proof in a criminal case. In this context, the","paragraph_id":"para_694"},{"text":"standard is not evidentiary. Quinn v. State, 1 Wn.3d 453, 471 n.9, 526 P.3d 1 (2023).","paragraph_id":"para_695"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_696"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_697"},{"text":"4","paragraph_id":"para_698"},{"text":"Section 37 provides:","paragraph_id":"para_699","court_paragraph":4},{"text":"No act shall ever be revised or amended by mere reference to its title, but","paragraph_id":"para_700"},{"text":"the act revised or the section amended shall be set forth at full length.","paragraph_id":"para_701"},{"text":"Id.","paragraph_id":"para_702"},{"text":"Climate Solutions challenges the constitutionality of I-2066 by asserting that it","paragraph_id":"para_703"},{"text":"violates article II, sections 19 and 37. The majority does not opine as to whether I-2066","paragraph_id":"para_704"},{"text":"violates article II, section 19’s subject-in-title requirement or article II, section 37’s silent","paragraph_id":"para_705"},{"text":"amendment provision. Instead, the majority concludes that I-2066 violates article II,","paragraph_id":"para_706"},{"text":"section 19’s single-subject rule, and, therefore, it strikes down the entire initiative as","paragraph_id":"para_707"},{"text":"unconstitutional.","paragraph_id":"para_708"},{"text":"I would hold that all of I-2066 complies with article II, section 19’s requirements","paragraph_id":"para_709"},{"text":"(except subsection 12(5)) and that most of the sections comply with article II, section 37.","paragraph_id":"para_710"},{"text":"For the sections that do not comply with the constitutional requirements, they can be","paragraph_id":"para_711"},{"text":"severed and the remainder of I-2066 can be upheld as constitutional.","paragraph_id":"para_712"},{"text":"II","paragraph_id":"para_713"},{"text":"I-2066 COMPLIES WITH ARTICLE II, SECTION 19’S SUBJECT-IN-TITLE REQUIREMENT BY","paragraph_id":"para_714"},{"text":"GIVING VOTERS NOTICE OF THE CONTENTS OF THE INITIATIVE","paragraph_id":"para_715"},{"text":"Article II, section 19 has two prohibitions: (1) the title cannot contain more than","paragraph_id":"para_716"},{"text":"one subject and (2) the act cannot contain subjects that are not expressed in the title. Lee,","paragraph_id":"para_717"},{"text":"185 Wn.2d at 620. The first is known as the “single-subject requirement” and the second","paragraph_id":"para_718"},{"text":"is known as the “subject-in-title requirement.”","paragraph_id":"para_719"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_720"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_721"},{"text":"5","paragraph_id":"para_722"},{"text":"Starting with the subject-in-title requirement, an initiative’s ballot title should","paragraph_id":"para_723","court_paragraph":5},{"text":"include a subject statement, concise description, and the question of whether the measure","paragraph_id":"para_724"},{"text":"should be enacted into law. RCW 29A.72.050(1). To comply with article II, section 19,","paragraph_id":"para_725"},{"text":"the title must give voters notice of the scope and purpose of the law or prompt voters to","paragraph_id":"para_726"},{"text":"inquire into the body of the act. Garfield County Transp. Auth. v. State, 196 Wn.2d 378,","paragraph_id":"para_727"},{"text":"398, 473 P.3d 1205 (2020). However, given there is a 30-word limit for ballot titles and","paragraph_id":"para_728"},{"text":"an even more restrictive 10-word limit for the subject statement, the title is not required","paragraph_id":"para_729"},{"text":"to be an index or to give details about the proposed act. Id.; RCW 29A.72.050(1).","paragraph_id":"para_730"},{"text":"In determining the constitutionality of an initiative, courts will liberally construe","paragraph_id":"para_731"},{"text":"the initiative’s title. Pierce County v. State, 150 Wn.2d 422, 436, 78 P.3d 640 (2003).","paragraph_id":"para_732"},{"text":"Courts will hold that an act is unconstitutional based on a subject-in-title challenge only if","paragraph_id":"para_733"},{"text":"the issue involving the title is consequential. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_734"},{"text":"In this case, the Washington State Attorney General’s Office prepared I-2066’s","paragraph_id":"para_735"},{"text":"title. That title was challenged. As a result, the superior court drafted the following","paragraph_id":"para_736"},{"text":"substitute ballot title:","paragraph_id":"para_737"},{"text":"Initiative Measure No. 2066 concerns regulating energy services, including","paragraph_id":"para_738"},{"text":"natural gas and electrification.","paragraph_id":"para_739"},{"text":"This measure would repeal or prohibit certain laws and regulations that","paragraph_id":"para_740"},{"text":"discourage natural gas use and/or promote electrification, and require","paragraph_id":"para_741"},{"text":"certain utilities and local governments to provide natural gas to eligible","paragraph_id":"para_742"},{"text":"customers.","paragraph_id":"para_743"},{"text":"Should this measure be enacted into law?","paragraph_id":"para_744"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_745"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_746"},{"text":"6","paragraph_id":"para_747"},{"text":"Clerk’s Papers at 138 (formatting omitted). By its terms, the title informs voters that the","paragraph_id":"para_748","court_paragraph":6},{"text":"measure would","paragraph_id":"para_749"},{"text":"• repeal certain laws and regulations that discourage the use of natural gas;","paragraph_id":"para_750"},{"text":"• prohibit certain laws and regulations that discourage the use of natural gas;","paragraph_id":"para_751"},{"text":"• repeal certain laws and regulations that promote electrification;","paragraph_id":"para_752"},{"text":"• prohibit certain laws and regulations that promote electrification; and","paragraph_id":"para_753"},{"text":"• require certain utilities, companies, and local governments to provide natural","paragraph_id":"para_754"},{"text":"gas to eligible users.","paragraph_id":"para_755"},{"text":"The ballot title is adequate to inform the average voter of the scope and purpose of","paragraph_id":"para_756"},{"text":"the law or, at the very least, lead inquiring minds to look further into the body of the act.","paragraph_id":"para_757"},{"text":"The title captures the subject of the act and its contents. I would hold that I-2066 meets","paragraph_id":"para_758"},{"text":"the subject-in-title requirements.","paragraph_id":"para_759"},{"text":"III","paragraph_id":"para_760"},{"text":"IN ANALYZING WHETHER AN INITIATIVE COMPLIES WITH ARTICLE II, SECTION 19’S","paragraph_id":"para_761"},{"text":"SINGLE-SUBJECT RULE, COURTS MUST EXAMINE WHETHER THE SUBJECTS INCLUDED IN","paragraph_id":"para_762"},{"text":"AN INITIATIVE HAVE SOME RATIONAL CONNECTION TO THE INITIATIVE’S TITLE AND SOME","paragraph_id":"para_763"},{"text":"RATIONAL CONNECTION WITH EACH OTHER","paragraph_id":"para_764"},{"text":"Looking next to article II, section 19’s single-subject requirement, the majority","paragraph_id":"para_765"},{"text":"correctly notes that an initiative’s provisions must have some rational connection to the","paragraph_id":"para_766"},{"text":"initiative’s title (vertical rational unity) and some rational connection to each other","paragraph_id":"para_767"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_768"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_769"},{"text":"7","paragraph_id":"para_770"},{"text":"(horizontal rational unity).2 The majority, while not clearly delineating its rationale,","paragraph_id":"para_771","court_paragraph":7},{"text":"apparently concludes that I-2066 lacks both. I disagree. Applying the presumption in","paragraph_id":"para_772"},{"text":"favor of finding an initiative constitutional, I-2066 meets both vertical and horizontal","paragraph_id":"para_773"},{"text":"rational unity requirements.","paragraph_id":"para_774"},{"text":"The first step in the rational unity analysis is examining the subject expressed in","paragraph_id":"para_775"},{"text":"the initiative’s title and its scope. When a title is ambiguous or there are reasonable","paragraph_id":"para_776"},{"text":"doubts as to how to construe the title, a court must adopt the interpretation that would","paragraph_id":"para_777"},{"text":"render the law constitutional. Wash. Fed’n of State Emps. v. State, 127 Wn.2d 544, 556,","paragraph_id":"para_778"},{"text":"901 P.2d 1028 (1995). This is particularly true when a court is analyzing a challenge to","paragraph_id":"para_779"},{"text":"an initiative based on title requirements. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_780"},{"text":"Courts treat general and restrictive titles differently in their analyses. General","paragraph_id":"para_781"},{"text":"titles are broad and comprehensive. ATU, 142 Wn.2d at 207. A title may be general if it","paragraph_id":"para_782"},{"text":"contains well-chosen phrasing that is suggestive of the general subject, even if it does not","paragraph_id":"para_783"},{"text":"explicitly state the subject. Id. at 209. Courts will liberally construe general titles to","paragraph_id":"para_784"},{"text":"include any subject reasonably germane to the title within the measure. Id. at 207. An","paragraph_id":"para_785"},{"text":"initiative with a general title does not violate article II, section 19 so long as there is","paragraph_id":"para_786"},{"text":"rational unity, even if it contains several incidental subjects. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_787"},{"text":"2 While not previously used in our case law, I agree with the majority’s adoption of the terms","paragraph_id":"para_788"},{"text":"“horizontal rational unity” to refer to whether all provisions rationally relate to one another","paragraph_id":"para_789"},{"text":"and “vertical rational unity” to refer to whether each provision rationally relates to the","paragraph_id":"para_790"},{"text":"general subject. Majority at 9.","paragraph_id":"para_791"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_792"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_793"},{"text":"8","paragraph_id":"para_794"},{"text":"In contrast, a restrictive title has a narrower focus and will not be regarded as","paragraph_id":"para_795","court_paragraph":8},{"text":"liberally as a general title. Id. at 210.","paragraph_id":"para_796"},{"text":"Here, I-2066’s title is general. The majority agrees with this assessment.","paragraph_id":"para_797"},{"text":"However, the majority fails to declare what it believes is the scope of the title. Without","paragraph_id":"para_798"},{"text":"identifying the title’s scope, it is impossible for the majority to determine whether the","paragraph_id":"para_799"},{"text":"subjects comply with the vertical rational unity requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_800"},{"text":"The State characterizes the title’s subject as protecting consumers’ access to","paragraph_id":"para_801"},{"text":"natural gas. In contrast, the Building Industry Association of Washington (BIAW),","paragraph_id":"para_802"},{"text":"characterizes the title’s subject as preserving energy choices. I conclude that the State’s","paragraph_id":"para_803"},{"text":"characterization is more accurate. Accordingly, that is the lens through which I analyze","paragraph_id":"para_804"},{"text":"this dispute.","paragraph_id":"para_805"},{"text":"The next two steps are examining whether the subjects within the initiative have","paragraph_id":"para_806"},{"text":"some rational connection to the title and whether they have some rational connection with","paragraph_id":"para_807"},{"text":"each other.","paragraph_id":"para_808"},{"text":"A. The Subjects Within I-2066 Have Some Rational Connection to the Title. In Other","paragraph_id":"para_809"},{"text":"Words, There Is Vertical Rational Unity","paragraph_id":"para_810"},{"text":"Because I-2066’s title is general, any subject reasonably related to that title may","paragraph_id":"para_811"},{"text":"properly be included within the initiative. Wash. Fed’n of State Emps., 127 Wn.2d at","paragraph_id":"para_812"},{"text":"555-56. Incidental subjects or subdivisions can be included within the initiative without","paragraph_id":"para_813"},{"text":"violating this constitutional requirement so long as they have rational unity with the","paragraph_id":"para_814"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_815"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_816"},{"text":"9","paragraph_id":"para_817"},{"text":"general subject. Id. at 556. Courts determine what subject and incidental subjects an act","paragraph_id":"para_818","court_paragraph":9},{"text":"embraces by looking at the measure itself—at the title of the act and the body. ATU, 142","paragraph_id":"para_819"},{"text":"Wn.2d at 214. Accordingly, incidental impacts do not equate to incidental subjects for","paragraph_id":"para_820"},{"text":"the single-subject analysis.","paragraph_id":"para_821"},{"text":"It is important to remember that the subjects within the initiative need only to have","paragraph_id":"para_822"},{"text":"“some” rational relationship to the title. Id. This is a very low bar. While we have not","paragraph_id":"para_823"},{"text":"analogized the term “rational unity” used in this setting to the term “rational basis” used","paragraph_id":"para_824"},{"text":"in an equal protection analysis, I would hold that the same level of scrutiny applies. This","paragraph_id":"para_825"},{"text":"is a highly deferential standard. Here, if there is some connection to the subject of the","paragraph_id":"para_826"},{"text":"initiative and the broad, general title of I-2066, it meets constitutional requirements.","paragraph_id":"para_827"},{"text":"I-2066 has 13 sections. The State argues that each section serves the goal of","paragraph_id":"para_828"},{"text":"protecting consumers’ access to natural gas through measures that (1) protect access to a","paragraph_id":"para_829"},{"text":"natural supply of gas and (2) protect the use of natural gas in heating, appliances, and","paragraph_id":"para_830"},{"text":"equipment. The State characterizes these two purposes of the measure as incidental","paragraph_id":"para_831"},{"text":"subjects related to the general subject and, therefore, argues there is vertical rational","paragraph_id":"para_832"},{"text":"unity. I agree. Laws and regulations that protect access to natural gas and the use of","paragraph_id":"para_833"},{"text":"natural gas are interrelated. The provisions in the initiative all work together to protect","paragraph_id":"para_834"},{"text":"consumers’ access to natural gas in Washington State. Therefore, there is vertical rational","paragraph_id":"para_835"},{"text":"unity.","paragraph_id":"para_836"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_837"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_838"},{"text":"10","paragraph_id":"para_839"},{"text":"Indeed, taking each section in turn, all but one has some rational relationship with","paragraph_id":"para_840","court_paragraph":10},{"text":"the general subject, satisfying vertical rational unity.","paragraph_id":"para_841"},{"text":"1. Supplying Natural Gas","paragraph_id":"para_842"},{"text":"Sections 2, 3, 4, and 5, and subsections 12(2) and 12(4) all involve protecting","paragraph_id":"para_843"},{"text":"consumers’ access to natural gas.","paragraph_id":"para_844"},{"text":"Sections 2 and 3 protect access by requiring Puget Sound Energy (PSE), gas","paragraph_id":"para_845"},{"text":"companies, and cities and towns that furnish natural gas to provide it to those who are","paragraph_id":"para_846"},{"text":"reasonably entitled to receive it. LAWS OF 2025, ch. 1, §§ 2-3.","paragraph_id":"para_847"},{"text":"Sections 4 and 5 protect consumers’ access to natural gas by limiting the Utilities","paragraph_id":"para_848"},{"text":"and Transport Commission (UTC) and PSE from taking certain actions that would","paragraph_id":"para_849"},{"text":"terminate or disincentivize access to natural gas for customers who want it. Id., §§ 4,","paragraph_id":"para_850"},{"text":"5(4)-(5), 5(11)-(13). These measures include prohibiting the UTC from approving","paragraph_id":"para_851"},{"text":"multiyear rate plans that restrict customers’ access to natural gas, removing requirements","paragraph_id":"para_852"},{"text":"that the UTC consider replacements for natural gas, prohibiting PSE from terminating","paragraph_id":"para_853"},{"text":"natural gas services to customers, and preventing PSE from artificially increasing the cost","paragraph_id":"para_854"},{"text":"of natural gas services in its planning. See id., §§ 4, 5(11)-(13), 5(5).","paragraph_id":"para_855"},{"text":"Finally, subsections 12(2) through (4) protect consumers’ access to a supply of","paragraph_id":"para_856"},{"text":"natural gas by repealing certain provisions of the Decarbonization Act that discourage","paragraph_id":"para_857"},{"text":"and reduce natural gas services being provided. Subsection 12(2) repeals a provision that","paragraph_id":"para_858"},{"text":"would have allowed for depreciation schedules that reduce the rate base for any gas plant","paragraph_id":"para_859"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_860"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_861"},{"text":"11","paragraph_id":"para_862"},{"text":"and for the merger of electric and gas rates. That provision disincentivized PSE from","paragraph_id":"para_863","court_paragraph":11},{"text":"providing natural gas services to customers. Subsection 12(3) repeals a provision that","paragraph_id":"para_864"},{"text":"prohibited PSE from providing incentives or inducements to purchase natural gas","paragraph_id":"para_865"},{"text":"appliances or equipment. Subsection 12(4) repeals other provisions that would lead to","paragraph_id":"para_866"},{"text":"the replacement of natural gas services with electricity.","paragraph_id":"para_867"},{"text":"2. Allowing Consumers To Use Natural Gas","paragraph_id":"para_868"},{"text":"Sections 6 through 11 and subsection 12(3) all protect consumers’ ability to use","paragraph_id":"para_869"},{"text":"natural gas, supporting the overarching goal of protecting consumers’ access to natural","paragraph_id":"para_870"},{"text":"gas.","paragraph_id":"para_871"},{"text":"Sections 6 through 8 place limits on the Washington State Building Code","paragraph_id":"para_872"},{"text":"Council’s ability to change the “Washington State Energy Code” in ways that would","paragraph_id":"para_873"},{"text":"prohibit, penalize, or discourage consumers’ use of gas for heating, appliances, or","paragraph_id":"para_874"},{"text":"equipment in any building. Subsection 6(2)(a) repeals the requirement that the code help","paragraph_id":"para_875"},{"text":"achieve zero fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions as such a requirement would conflict","paragraph_id":"para_876"},{"text":"with the other amendments.","paragraph_id":"para_877"},{"text":"Sections 9 through 11 prevent cities, towns, counties, and air pollution control","paragraph_id":"para_878"},{"text":"authorities from restricting consumers’ access to natural gas by preventing them from","paragraph_id":"para_879"},{"text":"prohibiting, penalizing, or discouraging the use of natural gas for heating or for uses","paragraph_id":"para_880"},{"text":"related to appliances or equipment.","paragraph_id":"para_881"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_882"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_883"},{"text":"12","paragraph_id":"para_884"},{"text":"3. Subsection 12(5)","paragraph_id":"para_885","court_paragraph":12},{"text":"In contrast to the above, subsection 12(5) does not have even some relationship to","paragraph_id":"para_886"},{"text":"I-2066’s title. Subsection 12(5) repeals the severability clause of the Decarbonization","paragraph_id":"para_887"},{"text":"Act. On this point I agree with the majority: this section does not have any reasonable","paragraph_id":"para_888"},{"text":"relationship to I-2066’s title. Eliminating the severability clause of the Decarbonization","paragraph_id":"para_889"},{"text":"Act would not protect consumers’ access to natural gas in any way. In addition, this","paragraph_id":"para_890"},{"text":"provision is different from a mere policy expression, as the State argues. It would have","paragraph_id":"para_891"},{"text":"some legal effect, and, therefore, it is subject to the article II, section 19 analysis.","paragraph_id":"para_892"},{"text":"Since subsection 12(5) is not rationally related to protecting consumers’ access to","paragraph_id":"para_893"},{"text":"natural gas, the question then becomes whether this section can be severed from the","paragraph_id":"para_894"},{"text":"remaining portions of I-2066 in order to preserve the initiative. I will address this further","paragraph_id":"para_895"},{"text":"along in this opinion because three other sections of I-2066 must face that same question.","paragraph_id":"para_896"},{"text":"4. Section 1 and Subsection 12(1)","paragraph_id":"para_897"},{"text":"Section 1 and subsection 12(1) both relate to the Act’s statement of intent and","paragraph_id":"para_898"},{"text":"therefore are not considered in the single-subject analysis. Pierce County, 150 Wn.2d at","paragraph_id":"para_899"},{"text":"433 (an initiative’s policy expression is not considered an additional subject). Section 1","paragraph_id":"para_900"},{"text":"is a statement of intent. Subsection 12(1) repeals a statement of intent in the","paragraph_id":"para_901"},{"text":"Decarbonization Act. By definition, these are not additional subjects.","paragraph_id":"para_902"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_903"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_904"},{"text":"13","paragraph_id":"para_905"},{"text":"B. The Provisions of I-2066 Have Some Rational Connection to Each Other. In","paragraph_id":"para_906","court_paragraph":13},{"text":"Other Words, There Is Horizontal Rational Unity","paragraph_id":"para_907"},{"text":"As demonstrated above, all the provisions, except subsection 12(5), have some","paragraph_id":"para_908"},{"text":"rational relationship to each other in that they all protect consumers’ access to natural gas","paragraph_id":"para_909"},{"text":"by promoting the access to, and use of, natural gas. The provisions each implement","paragraph_id":"para_910"},{"text":"different protections to ensure that consumers can continue to access natural gas, whether","paragraph_id":"para_911"},{"text":"it be by limiting authorities’ abilities to discourage such use, requiring utilities and","paragraph_id":"para_912"},{"text":"companies to provide natural gas, or preventing rules and regulations that would lead to","paragraph_id":"para_913"},{"text":"significant decreases in access to natural gas. The provisions within I-2066 have","paragraph_id":"para_914"},{"text":"horizontal rational unity.","paragraph_id":"para_915"},{"text":"C. The Majority’s Conclusion That I-2066 Violates Article II, Section 19 Is Not","paragraph_id":"para_916"},{"text":"Faithful to our Principles To Uphold the Constitutionality of an Initiative When","paragraph_id":"para_917"},{"text":"Possible","paragraph_id":"para_918"},{"text":"The majority does not give I-2066 the presumption of constitutionality. It does not","paragraph_id":"para_919"},{"text":"interpret the title liberally to save the constitutionality of the initiative. It does not","paragraph_id":"para_920"},{"text":"interpret the provisions to save the constitutionality of the initiative.","paragraph_id":"para_921"},{"text":"For example, the majority gives section 11 an extreme interpretation to conclude","paragraph_id":"para_922"},{"text":"there is a single-subject violation. The majority argues that disallowing air pollution","paragraph_id":"para_923"},{"text":"control authorities from prohibiting, penalizing, or discouraging the use of natural gas","paragraph_id":"para_924"},{"text":"introduces the broader, separate subject of regulating all fossil fuels. Majority at 18. This","paragraph_id":"para_925"},{"text":"is a leap that, first, is not true, and, second, is not allowed under our rules requiring us to","paragraph_id":"para_926"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_927"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_928"},{"text":"14","paragraph_id":"para_929"},{"text":"construe provisions liberally in favor of constitutionality. Section 11 does not encompass","paragraph_id":"para_930","court_paragraph":14},{"text":"all fossil fuels; instead, it seeks to protect consumers’ access to natural gas. Even if there","paragraph_id":"para_931"},{"text":"could be incidental impacts on other fossil fuels, that does not mean the provision fails","paragraph_id":"para_932"},{"text":"rational unity.","paragraph_id":"para_933"},{"text":"Similarly, the majority concludes that section 6 violates the single-subject","paragraph_id":"para_934"},{"text":"requirement because its effect “is to broadly limit the authority of Washington’s statewide","paragraph_id":"para_935"},{"text":"building code council and to require statewide changes to construction standards, a","paragraph_id":"para_936"},{"text":"constitutionally distinct subject requiring local entities to provide natural gas and","paragraph_id":"para_937"},{"text":"restricting the authority of local air quality regulators.” Majority at 19. However, the","paragraph_id":"para_938"},{"text":"majority does not show how section 6 fails rational unity. Indeed, this subject has a","paragraph_id":"para_939"},{"text":"reasonable relationship with both the title and with the other subjects. Disallowing the","paragraph_id":"para_940"},{"text":"Washington State Building Code Council from changing the Washington State Energy","paragraph_id":"para_941"},{"text":"Code in ways that would prohibit, penalize, or discourage natural gas use in buildings","paragraph_id":"para_942"},{"text":"directly relates to protecting consumers’ access to natural gas. Removing the requirement","paragraph_id":"para_943"},{"text":"that the Washington State Energy Code help achieve zero fossil fuel greenhouse","paragraph_id":"para_944"},{"text":"emissions makes it so the council can act without prohibiting, penalizing, or discouraging","paragraph_id":"para_945"},{"text":"natural gas use. Like with section 11, while the provision may have incidental impacts on","paragraph_id":"para_946"},{"text":"other issues, this does not create separate, distinct subjects that fail rational unity.","paragraph_id":"para_947"},{"text":"These are just some of the instances where the majority fails to give I-2066 a","paragraph_id":"para_948"},{"text":"constitutionally favorable construction where it could reasonably do so. Giving the","paragraph_id":"para_949"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_950"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_951"},{"text":"15","paragraph_id":"para_952"},{"text":"majority the benefit of the doubt, it is interpreting the initiative’s language in a neutral","paragraph_id":"para_953","court_paragraph":15},{"text":"manner. Removing that benefit, the majority’s construction is a conservative, and not","paragraph_id":"para_954"},{"text":"liberal, one. That is not what our constitution requires. That is not what our case law","paragraph_id":"para_955"},{"text":"requires. In reviewing the language of an initiative, courts will use an interpretation that","paragraph_id":"para_956"},{"text":"will satisfy constitutional requirements when possible. Lee, 185 Wn.2d at 619.","paragraph_id":"para_957"},{"text":"In addition, contrary to the majority’s reasoning, the test for whether provisions","paragraph_id":"para_958"},{"text":"comply with article II, section 19 does not depend on whether a provision is broad","paragraph_id":"para_959"},{"text":"reaching or has incidental effects on other laws. As stated above, the test is whether there","paragraph_id":"para_960"},{"text":"is rational unity between the title and provisions and between the provisions themselves.","paragraph_id":"para_961"},{"text":"My concern with the majority’s article II, section 19 analysis is that if we begin to","paragraph_id":"para_962"},{"text":"use the incidental impacts that initiatives have on other laws as a measure of rational","paragraph_id":"para_963"},{"text":"unity, almost every piece of legislation would fail—almost every law has some impact on","paragraph_id":"para_964"},{"text":"another. Holzman v. City of Spokane, 91 Wash. 418, 426, 157 P. 1086 (1916) (“ʻNearly","paragraph_id":"para_965"},{"text":"every legislative act of a general nature changes or modifies some existing statute, either","paragraph_id":"para_966"},{"text":"directly or by implication.ʼ” (quoting Spokane Grain & Fuel Co. v. Lyttaker, 59 Wash.","paragraph_id":"para_967"},{"text":"76, 82, 109 P. 316 (1910))). Our case law has never gone so far as to hold that a measure","paragraph_id":"para_968"},{"text":"violates the single-subject rule because it may have broad-reaching impacts. Indeed, the","paragraph_id":"para_969"},{"text":"majority takes our holdings in cases such as Washington Toll Bridge Authority v. State, 49","paragraph_id":"para_970"},{"text":"Wn.2d 520, 304 P.2d 676 (1956), ATU, 142 Wn.2d 183, and City of Burien v. Kiga, 144","paragraph_id":"para_971"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_972"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_973"},{"text":"16","paragraph_id":"para_974"},{"text":"Wn.2d 819, 31 P.3d 659 (2001), too far in reasoning that an enactment having widespread","paragraph_id":"para_975","court_paragraph":16},{"text":"effects indicates that there is a single-subject violation.","paragraph_id":"para_976"},{"text":"Each of these cases involved enactments that contained both one-time, short-term","paragraph_id":"para_977"},{"text":"changes and long-term, systemic changes to issues that were unrelated. See Citizens for","paragraph_id":"para_978"},{"text":"Responsible Wildlife Mgmt. v. State, 149 Wn.2d 622, 637, 71 P.3d 644 (2003) (“In those","paragraph_id":"para_979"},{"text":"cases, those subjects were so disjointed as to bear no relation to each other . . . . [E]ach","paragraph_id":"para_980"},{"text":"contained dual subjects, but one was more broad, long term and continuing than the other,","paragraph_id":"para_981"},{"text":"a characteristic that suggests logrolling may be at issue.”). This created distinct subjects","paragraph_id":"para_982"},{"text":"and suggested logrolling was at issue. While the court discussed the broad impact of","paragraph_id":"para_983"},{"text":"some of the provisions, the widespread impact of the provisions was not what made the","paragraph_id":"para_984"},{"text":"measures fail rational unity. Instead, the combination of short-term, one-time changes","paragraph_id":"para_985"},{"text":"and longer-term, systemic changes with subjects unrelated to one another resulted in the","paragraph_id":"para_986"},{"text":"provisions failing rational unity.","paragraph_id":"para_987"},{"text":"In contrast, each of the provisions in I-2066 (except subsection 12(5)) involve","paragraph_id":"para_988"},{"text":"similar ongoing, systemic changes to natural gas regulations. Each has the primary","paragraph_id":"para_989"},{"text":"purpose and effect of protecting consumers’ access to natural gas. The changes require","paragraph_id":"para_990"},{"text":"entities to provide consumers with natural gas when they are reasonably entitled to it and","paragraph_id":"para_991"},{"text":"also prohibit entities from discouraging such use. The provisions are each integral to","paragraph_id":"para_992"},{"text":"protecting consumers’ access to natural gas.","paragraph_id":"para_993"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_994"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_995"},{"text":"17","paragraph_id":"para_996"},{"text":"While the provisions have some differences in effect, that is to be expected—","paragraph_id":"para_997","court_paragraph":17},{"text":"different provisions act in different ways. However, each of the provisions still deal with","paragraph_id":"para_998"},{"text":"methods for protecting consumers’ access to natural gas in Washington State. As","paragraph_id":"para_999"},{"text":"discussed above, all the single-subject test requires is rational unity between the subject","paragraph_id":"para_1000"},{"text":"of the title and the provisions and the provisions to one another. The majority does not","paragraph_id":"para_1001"},{"text":"specify whether it believes that certain subjects are not rationally related to the title","paragraph_id":"para_1002"},{"text":"(vertical rational unity) or to each other (horizontal rational unity) or both. The majority","paragraph_id":"para_1003"},{"text":"does not show how I-2066’s provisions fail rational unity. Indeed, all but subsection","paragraph_id":"para_1004"},{"text":"12(5) are rationally related to the title and to the other provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_1005"},{"text":"Overall, the majority primarily seems to take issue with the provisions’ incidental","paragraph_id":"para_1006"},{"text":"impacts. However, initiatives can impact and change existing laws without violating the","paragraph_id":"para_1007"},{"text":"single-subject rule. We determine what subject or incidental subjects an act contains by","paragraph_id":"para_1008"},{"text":"looking to the measure itself, not its incidental impacts on other laws. To the extent that","paragraph_id":"para_1009"},{"text":"the majority argues that the provisions have broad-reaching impacts on other laws","paragraph_id":"para_1010"},{"text":"without making those changes clear, those arguments are more appropriate for an article","paragraph_id":"para_1011"},{"text":"II, section 37 challenge than an article II, section 19 challenge. Maintaining the","paragraph_id":"para_1012"},{"text":"distinction between the two constitutional provisions is critical.","paragraph_id":"para_1013"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1014"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1015"},{"text":"18","paragraph_id":"para_1016"},{"text":"III","paragraph_id":"para_1017","court_paragraph":18},{"text":"MOST OF I-2066 COMPLIES WITH ARTICLE II, SECTION 37, EXCEPT FOR SECTIONS 9, 10,","paragraph_id":"para_1018"},{"text":"AND 11","paragraph_id":"para_1019"},{"text":"When an act revises another act, our constitution requires the revised portion to be","paragraph_id":"para_1020"},{"text":"set forth at full length. CONST., art. II, § 37. An act cannot be revised or amended by","paragraph_id":"para_1021"},{"text":"mere reference to its title. Id. In other words, new laws cannot silently amend other","paragraph_id":"para_1022"},{"text":"laws. The reason for this constitutional requirement is to ensure that people who pass","paragraph_id":"para_1023"},{"text":"amendatory laws are aware of the impact they will have on existing laws. Wash. Citizens","paragraph_id":"para_1024"},{"text":"Action of Wash. v. State, 162 Wn.2d 142, 152, 171 P.3d 486 (2007).","paragraph_id":"para_1025"},{"text":"This court has adopted a two-part inquiry for an article II, section 37 challenge.","paragraph_id":"para_1026"},{"text":"ATU, 142 Wn.2d at 246. First, a court must consider whether a measure is a complete act","paragraph_id":"para_1027"},{"text":"in itself. Would a reader be able to determine a measure’s impact on the scope of rights","paragraph_id":"para_1028"},{"text":"or duties created or affected without having to look at another statute or enactment? Id.","paragraph_id":"para_1029"},{"text":"In other words, is the effect of the new legislation clear from the proposal itself? Wash.","paragraph_id":"para_1030"},{"text":"State Legislature v. Inslee, 198 Wn.2d 561, 593, 498 P.3d 496 (2021). Even if a provision","paragraph_id":"para_1031"},{"text":"is complete in itself and survives step one, it may still be unconstitutional if it fails step","paragraph_id":"para_1032"},{"text":"two of the analysis.","paragraph_id":"para_1033"},{"text":"Second, courts must consider whether the new enactment would render the scope","paragraph_id":"para_1034"},{"text":"of existing rights or duties erroneous under a plain reading of the law. ATU, 142 Wn.2d","paragraph_id":"para_1035"},{"text":"at 253. The purpose of step two is to make sure readers can understand the new","paragraph_id":"para_1036"},{"text":"provision’s effect on other provisions without needing to thoroughly research existing","paragraph_id":"para_1037"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1038"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1039"},{"text":"19","paragraph_id":"para_1040"},{"text":"laws. Wash. State Legislature, 198 Wn.2d at 593. Although the two steps provide","paragraph_id":"para_1041","court_paragraph":19},{"text":"different inquiries, courts should consider each step in the context of the other, not taking","paragraph_id":"para_1042"},{"text":"either in isolation. ATU, 142 Wn.2d 183.","paragraph_id":"para_1043"},{"text":"A. Most of I-2066 Complies with Article II, Section 37 by Providing","paragraph_id":"para_1044"},{"text":"Straightforward Amendments to the Law","paragraph_id":"para_1045"},{"text":"Climate Solutions argues that most of I-2066’s sections silently amend other laws,","paragraph_id":"para_1046"},{"text":"rendering the initiative unconstitutional under article II, section 37. Climate Solutions","paragraph_id":"para_1047"},{"text":"points to other laws and regulations that are impacted by I-2066 to support its arguments.","paragraph_id":"para_1048"},{"text":"However, this focus is misplaced.","paragraph_id":"para_1049"},{"text":"As an initial matter, while I-2066 does amend existing laws, most of its sections","paragraph_id":"para_1050"},{"text":"do so explicitly. All the sections set out which laws they are amending and the changes","paragraph_id":"para_1051"},{"text":"made. In particular, voters can understand the scope of the rights and duties created and","paragraph_id":"para_1052"},{"text":"affected by sections 2 through 8 by reference to the initiative alone.","paragraph_id":"para_1053"},{"text":"Section 2 amends RCW 80.28.110 and Laws of 2024, ch. 348, § 6 to require that","paragraph_id":"para_1054"},{"text":"gas companies and large combination utilities provide natural gas to consumers that are","paragraph_id":"para_1055"},{"text":"reasonably entitled to receive it. Reading this amendment in the context of RCW","paragraph_id":"para_1056"},{"text":"80.28.110 gives voters complete information on gas companies’ and large combination","paragraph_id":"para_1057"},{"text":"utilities’ scope of duties for providing natural gas to reasonably entitled consumers.","paragraph_id":"para_1058"},{"text":"Section 3 amends RCW 35.92.050 and Laws of 2022, ch. 292, § 405 to require","paragraph_id":"para_1059"},{"text":"cities or towns that furnish natural gas to provide natural gas to inhabitants who are","paragraph_id":"para_1060"},{"text":"reasonably entitled to receive it. Again, this amendment, when read with the rest of RCW","paragraph_id":"para_1061"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1062"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1063"},{"text":"20","paragraph_id":"para_1064"},{"text":"35.92.050, provides a complete look at cities and towns’ baseline duties to provide","paragraph_id":"para_1065","court_paragraph":20},{"text":"natural gas to their inhabitants.","paragraph_id":"para_1066"},{"text":"Section 4 amends RCW 80.28.425 and Laws of 2024, ch. 351, § 18 to provide that","paragraph_id":"para_1067"},{"text":"the commission cannot approve multiyear rate plans that require or incentivize companies","paragraph_id":"para_1068"},{"text":"and utilities to terminate natural gas services to customers or that would require a","paragraph_id":"para_1069"},{"text":"customer to involuntarily switch fuel use by restricting access to natural gas. RCW","paragraph_id":"para_1070"},{"text":"80.28.425 sets forth the requirements for the commission in considering proposals for","paragraph_id":"para_1071"},{"text":"multiyear rate plans. Accordingly, voters can clearly tell how the amendments impact the","paragraph_id":"para_1072"},{"text":"existing rights and duties of the commission in reviewing multiyear rate plans in this","paragraph_id":"para_1073"},{"text":"context.","paragraph_id":"para_1074"},{"text":"Similarly, section 5 amends parts of Title 80 RCW and Laws of 2024, ch. 351, § 3","paragraph_id":"para_1075"},{"text":"by prohibiting the commission from approving integrated system plans that require or","paragraph_id":"para_1076"},{"text":"incentivize utilities to terminate natural gas services to customers or require customers to","paragraph_id":"para_1077"},{"text":"involuntarily switch fuel use by restricting access to natural gas. The amendment’s","paragraph_id":"para_1078"},{"text":"impact on the commission’s rights and duties regarding review of integrated system plans","paragraph_id":"para_1079"},{"text":"can be understood by reading this section alone.","paragraph_id":"para_1080"},{"text":"Sections 6, 7, and 8 amend RCW 19.27A.020, .025, and .045, respectively,","paragraph_id":"para_1081"},{"text":"prohibiting the State Building Code Council from adopting rules or amending the","paragraph_id":"para_1082"},{"text":"Washington State Energy Code in ways that prohibit, penalize, or discourage the use of","paragraph_id":"para_1083"},{"text":"gas for any form of heating, or for uses related to any appliance or equipment. While","paragraph_id":"para_1084"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1085"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1086"},{"text":"21","paragraph_id":"para_1087"},{"text":"these sections restrict the State Building Code Council’s rights and duties in overseeing","paragraph_id":"para_1088","court_paragraph":21},{"text":"the Washington State Energy Code, these restrictions are clearly set forth and are not","paragraph_id":"para_1089"},{"text":"hidden from voters. The amendments in this section can be understood by the initiative","paragraph_id":"para_1090"},{"text":"alone. Altogether, these sections are complete within themselves and survive step one of","paragraph_id":"para_1091"},{"text":"the analysis.","paragraph_id":"para_1092"},{"text":"As to the second step of the inquiry, while these amendments might have","paragraph_id":"para_1093"},{"text":"incidental impacts on other laws or regulations, that does not render them","paragraph_id":"para_1094"},{"text":"unconstitutional. ATU, 142 Wn.2d at 248. Climate Solutions’ disagreement with the","paragraph_id":"para_1095"},{"text":"amendments and their impacts on policy do not rise to the level of a constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_1096"},{"text":"problem. Indeed, nearly every legislative act will render some other parts of the law","paragraph_id":"para_1097"},{"text":"erroneous through amendment, but that does not inherently go against article II, section","paragraph_id":"para_1098"},{"text":"37’s purpose of protecting voters from fraud and deception. Id. Climate Solutions","paragraph_id":"para_1099"},{"text":"identifies existing laws that authorize or encourage local authorities, companies, or","paragraph_id":"para_1100"},{"text":"utilities to move away from natural gas and argues that I-2066 silently amends those","paragraph_id":"para_1101"},{"text":"statutes. However, I-2066 reflects new policy preferences adopted by the voters that","paragraph_id":"para_1102"},{"text":"whether the court agrees with or not, we must defer to. The amendments do not change","paragraph_id":"para_1103"},{"text":"or frustrate any existing rights or duties under the law. While the impacted entities may","paragraph_id":"para_1104"},{"text":"have had the authority to move away from natural gas under existing law, they were not","paragraph_id":"para_1105"},{"text":"required to do so. Accordingly, Climate Solutions does not identify how I-2066","paragraph_id":"para_1106"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1107"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1108"},{"text":"22","paragraph_id":"para_1109"},{"text":"unconstitutionally creates confusion about existing rights and duties but, instead, merely","paragraph_id":"para_1110","court_paragraph":22},{"text":"takes issue with the fact that law and policy have changed.","paragraph_id":"para_1111"},{"text":"Next, to the extent that Climate Solutions argues that the amendments","paragraph_id":"para_1112"},{"text":"substantively limit related statutes, we have held that when an enactment is to be codified","paragraph_id":"para_1113"},{"text":"within the same RCW provision, the modification of the existing statute should be","paragraph_id":"para_1114"},{"text":"apparent. Wash. Educ. Ass’n v. State, 97 Wn.2d 899, 906, 652 P.2d 1347 (1982).","paragraph_id":"para_1115"},{"text":"Altogether, while sections 2 through 8 might have some impacts on existing rights","paragraph_id":"para_1116"},{"text":"and duties, there is no constitutional issue since the amendments and their direct impacts","paragraph_id":"para_1117"},{"text":"were straightforward and clearly presented to voters. Sections 2 through 8 do not violate","paragraph_id":"para_1118"},{"text":"article II, section 37.3","paragraph_id":"para_1119"},{"text":"B. Sections 9, 10, and 11 Create Confusion About Local Authorities’ Rights and","paragraph_id":"para_1120"},{"text":"Duties Under Existing Statutes in Violation of Article II, Section 37","paragraph_id":"para_1121"},{"text":"In contrast to the other sections, it is difficult to understand sections 9, 10, and 11’s","paragraph_id":"para_1122"},{"text":"impact on existing rights and duties under the law without referring to other statutes.","paragraph_id":"para_1123"},{"text":"Sections 9, 10, and 11 amend chapters 35.21, 36.01, and 70A.15 RCW, respectively, to","paragraph_id":"para_1124"},{"text":"limit local authorities from prohibiting, penalizing, or discouraging the use of gas for any","paragraph_id":"para_1125"},{"text":"form of heating, or for uses related to any appliance or equipment, in any building.","paragraph_id":"para_1126"},{"text":"Unlike other sections of the initiative, these sections place broad restrictions on local","paragraph_id":"para_1127"},{"text":"3 We do not need to consider the statement of intent, severability clause, or portions that repeal","paragraph_id":"para_1128"},{"text":"other provisions. The first two do not change existing law in a way that could lead to silent","paragraph_id":"para_1129"},{"text":"amendment. As for the provisions that repeal other laws, we have held that repealers are not","paragraph_id":"para_1130"},{"text":"subject to article II, section 37. ATU, 142 Wn.2d at 254.","paragraph_id":"para_1131"},{"text":"23","paragraph_id":"para_1132"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1133","court_paragraph":23},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1134"},{"text":"authorities’ power without much clarity, prohibiting them from discouraging the use of","paragraph_id":"para_1135"},{"text":"natural gas for heating, appliances, or equipment in any building. They add sections to","paragraph_id":"para_1136"},{"text":"chapters of the RCW that are generally about the power of cities, towns, counties, and","paragraph_id":"para_1137"},{"text":"authorities. However, those chapters do not really touch on natural gas access and use.","paragraph_id":"para_1138"},{"text":"Looking at sections 9, 10, and 11 alone, it is unclear in what ways local authorities’ rights","paragraph_id":"para_1139"},{"text":"and duties are affected in terms of their abilities to regulate consumers’ access to and use","paragraph_id":"para_1140"},{"text":"of natural gas. Accordingly, these sections silently amend other statutes by failing to","paragraph_id":"para_1141"},{"text":"disclose their effects on the rights and duties of local authorities under existing law.","paragraph_id":"para_1142"},{"text":"For example, chapter 39.35 RCW requires local governments to include energy","paragraph_id":"para_1143"},{"text":"efficiency assessments in design plans for major public facilities and to consider all-","paragraph_id":"para_1144"},{"text":"electric energy and renewable energy systems. RCW 39.35.040, .050(2). Sections 9 and","paragraph_id":"para_1145"},{"text":"10 undoubtedly conflict with this existing requirement because such assessments would","paragraph_id":"para_1146"},{"text":"discourage the use of gas in buildings. However, the average voter would not know","paragraph_id":"para_1147"},{"text":"about this substantive conflict unless they look beyond the initiative and the RCW","paragraph_id":"para_1148"},{"text":"chapters mentioned in it. While it is not unconstitutional to change existing rights and","paragraph_id":"para_1149"},{"text":"duties, it is unconstitutional to do so without adequately informing voters.","paragraph_id":"para_1150"},{"text":"In addition, the Growth Management Act (GMA) requires some cities and counties","paragraph_id":"para_1151"},{"text":"to adopt comprehensive expansion and development plans that include emissions","paragraph_id":"para_1152"},{"text":"reduction elements. RCW 36.70A.070(9)(a). If a city or county included such elements","paragraph_id":"para_1153"},{"text":"in its plans, it would violate section 9 or 10’s mandate that cities or counties “shall not","paragraph_id":"para_1154"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1155"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1156"},{"text":"24","paragraph_id":"para_1157"},{"text":"in any way prohibit, penalize, or discourage the use of gas.” LAWS OF 2025, ch. 1.","paragraph_id":"para_1158","court_paragraph":24},{"text":"Although the State and BIAW argue that the localities could address emissions reductions","paragraph_id":"para_1159"},{"text":"while still allowing for the use of natural gas, at the very least sections 9 and 10 change","paragraph_id":"para_1160"},{"text":"the scope of the localities’ existing rights and duties in this regard. While it is debatable","paragraph_id":"para_1161"},{"text":"whether the rights and duties in the GMA provisions are rendered completely erroneous","paragraph_id":"para_1162"},{"text":"by these sections, I-2066 certainly does not disclose its impact in relation to the GMA’s","paragraph_id":"para_1163"},{"text":"requirements. Cities’ and counties’ duties are restricted through silent amendment, which","paragraph_id":"para_1164"},{"text":"is prohibited by article II, section 37.","paragraph_id":"para_1165"},{"text":"As for section 11, Washington’s Clean Air Act requires air pollution control","paragraph_id":"para_1166"},{"text":"agencies to adopt emissions regulations no less stringent than those adopted by the","paragraph_id":"para_1167"},{"text":"Department of Ecology. Id., § 11; RCW 70A.15.3000(2)(b); .3050(1). Ecology is","paragraph_id":"para_1168"},{"text":"required to adopt emissions standards “which shall constitute minimum emission","paragraph_id":"para_1169"},{"text":"standards throughout the state.” RCW 70A.15.3000(2)(b). By the plain language of","paragraph_id":"para_1170"},{"text":"section 11, air pollution control agencies, which are “authorities” as defined by statute,","paragraph_id":"para_1171"},{"text":"see RCW 70A.15.1030(5), could not adopt Ecology’s regulations if they prohibit,","paragraph_id":"para_1172"},{"text":"penalize, or discourage the use of natural gas. I-2066 does not make this limit on the","paragraph_id":"para_1173"},{"text":"authorities’ duties clear, presenting an undisclosed substantive conflict between the","paragraph_id":"para_1174"},{"text":"mandatory duties in the initiative and existing law.","paragraph_id":"para_1175"},{"text":"Sections 9, 10, and 11 fail step one of the article II, section 37 analysis because the","paragraph_id":"para_1176"},{"text":"direct effects of the proposal on existing law are not apparent.","paragraph_id":"para_1177"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1178"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1179"},{"text":"25","paragraph_id":"para_1180"},{"text":"Looking to step two of the analysis, it is less clear whether sections 9, 10, and 11","paragraph_id":"para_1181","court_paragraph":25},{"text":"also render erroneous straightforward determinations of the scope of rights or duties","paragraph_id":"para_1182"},{"text":"under existing law. ATU, 142 Wn.2d at 246. As discussed above, almost all general","paragraph_id":"para_1183"},{"text":"legislation will create some conflict with existing laws. However, when provisions are","paragraph_id":"para_1184"},{"text":"not complete, courts will look more closely at undisclosed impacts as they are more","paragraph_id":"para_1185"},{"text":"likely to have deceived voters. Id. at 247.","paragraph_id":"para_1186"},{"text":"Sections 9, 10, and 11 may have deceived voters. They make it difficult to","paragraph_id":"para_1187"},{"text":"determine the scope of local authorities’ rights and duties under existing law. It is unclear","paragraph_id":"para_1188"},{"text":"in what ways those rights and duties are impacted and the extent to which I-2066 renders","paragraph_id":"para_1189"},{"text":"them erroneous.","paragraph_id":"para_1190"},{"text":"Accordingly, I would hold that sections 9, 10, and 11 silently amend existing laws","paragraph_id":"para_1191"},{"text":"in violation of article II, section 37. As for the remaining sections, while they might limit","paragraph_id":"para_1192"},{"text":"the scope of certain entities’ rights and duties, they do so transparently. While certain","paragraph_id":"para_1193"},{"text":"entities previously may have been encouraged or authorized to take certain actions to","paragraph_id":"para_1194"},{"text":"reduce the use of and access to natural gas, I-2066 clearly expresses a policy shift,","paragraph_id":"para_1195"},{"text":"making substantive changes apparent. Incidental impacts stemming from sections 2","paragraph_id":"para_1196"},{"text":"through 8 do not rise to the level of a constitutional issue as such incidental impacts are","paragraph_id":"para_1197"},{"text":"almost always unavoidable in legislation. The bottom line is that those sections were not","paragraph_id":"para_1198"},{"text":"crafted in a way that would deceive or confuse voters in violation of article II, section 37.","paragraph_id":"para_1199"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1200"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1201"},{"text":"26","paragraph_id":"para_1202"},{"text":"IV","paragraph_id":"para_1203","court_paragraph":26},{"text":"IN ORDER TO PRESERVE THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF I-2066,","paragraph_id":"para_1204"},{"text":"SECTIONS 9, 10, 11, AND SUBSECTION 12(5) MUST BE SEVERED","paragraph_id":"para_1205"},{"text":"We will not deem an entire initiative unconstitutional when invalid provisions can","paragraph_id":"para_1206"},{"text":"be severed. ATU, 142 Wn.2d at 227-28. If it can be reasonably believed that the voters","paragraph_id":"para_1207"},{"text":"would have passed the initiative without the invalid provisions, then we will uphold the","paragraph_id":"para_1208"},{"text":"remainder of the initiative. Id. If an initiative contains a severability clause, that supports","paragraph_id":"para_1209"},{"text":"finding that voters would have enacted remaining sections of the initiative even if some","paragraph_id":"para_1210"},{"text":"sections are found invalid. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_1211"},{"text":"Here, I-2066 contains a severability clause in section 13: “If any provision of this","paragraph_id":"para_1212"},{"text":"act or its application to any person or circumstance is held invalid, the remainder of the","paragraph_id":"para_1213"},{"text":"act or the application of the provision to other persons or circumstances is not affected.”","paragraph_id":"para_1214"},{"text":"LAWS OF 2025, ch. 1. While the severability clause is not dispositive on its own, it can be","paragraph_id":"para_1215"},{"text":"reasonably believed that the voters would have passed I-2066 even without sections 9,","paragraph_id":"para_1216"},{"text":"10, 11, and subsection 12(5). Severing these sections does not render the remainder of I-","paragraph_id":"para_1217"},{"text":"2066 useless to accomplish the initiative’s purpose of encouraging natural gas use and","paragraph_id":"para_1218"},{"text":"availability. Id. Therefore, sections 9, 10, 11, and subsection 12(5) should be severed","paragraph_id":"para_1219"},{"text":"while the remainder of I-2066 is upheld as constitutional.","paragraph_id":"para_1220"},{"text":"A. Severability of Sections 9, 10, and 11","paragraph_id":"para_1221"},{"text":"Looking first at sections 9, 10, and 11, it can be reasonably believed voters would","paragraph_id":"para_1222"},{"text":"have passed I-2066 without these provisions. First, the existence of the severability","paragraph_id":"para_1223"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1224"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1225"},{"text":"27","paragraph_id":"para_1226"},{"text":"clause supports the conclusion that the voters wanted the initiative to survive if any of the","paragraph_id":"para_1227","court_paragraph":27},{"text":"provisions were found unconstitutional. Gerberding v. Munro, 134 Wn.2d 188, 197, 949","paragraph_id":"para_1228"},{"text":"P.2d 1366 (1998). Second, those sections, while they satisfy the very low bar of rational","paragraph_id":"para_1229"},{"text":"relationship requirements, are less clear on how exactly they operate to promote the","paragraph_id":"para_1230"},{"text":"initiative’s purpose. Because they silently amend other statutes, voters could not","paragraph_id":"para_1231"},{"text":"understand their true impact. Therefore, it can be reasonably believed that voters would","paragraph_id":"para_1232"},{"text":"have passed I-2066 without these provisions. This is not a situation like under article II,","paragraph_id":"para_1233"},{"text":"section 19, where there are multiple discrete subjects involved and the court cannot tell","paragraph_id":"para_1234"},{"text":"which subject the voters would have passed.","paragraph_id":"para_1235"},{"text":"In addition, the remaining sections of I-2066 still accomplish the purpose of","paragraph_id":"para_1236"},{"text":"protecting consumers’ access to natural gas. Removing sections 9, 10, and 11 would not","paragraph_id":"para_1237"},{"text":"render I-2066 incapable of accomplishing its intended purpose. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_1238"},{"text":"Weighing all these considerations, the remainder of I-2066 should be upheld as","paragraph_id":"para_1239"},{"text":"constitutional. In any event, courts should construe initiatives in favor of","paragraph_id":"para_1240"},{"text":"constitutionality, which would mean severing sections 9, 10, and 11 to keep the rest of I-","paragraph_id":"para_1241"},{"text":"2066 alive.","paragraph_id":"para_1242"},{"text":"B. Severability of Subsection 12(5)","paragraph_id":"para_1243"},{"text":"As discussed above, subsection 12(5) repeals the Decarbonization Act’s","paragraph_id":"para_1244"},{"text":"severability provision and violates article II, section 19 because it is not rationally related","paragraph_id":"para_1245"},{"text":"to I-2066’s subject of protecting consumers’ access to natural gas. In Kiga, we noted:","paragraph_id":"para_1246"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1247"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1248"},{"text":"28","paragraph_id":"para_1249"},{"text":"When an initiative embodies two unrelated subjects, it is impossible for the","paragraph_id":"para_1250","court_paragraph":28},{"text":"court to assess whether either subject would have received majority support","paragraph_id":"para_1251"},{"text":"if voted on separately. Consequently, the entire initiative must be voided.","paragraph_id":"para_1252"},{"text":"144 Wn.2d at 825.","paragraph_id":"para_1253"},{"text":"In that case, the initiative’s subject related to systemic, ongoing changes in","paragraph_id":"para_1254"},{"text":"property tax assessments but also contained a repeal and refund provision that","paragraph_id":"para_1255"},{"text":"encompassed much more than property taxes. Id. at 827. Where there were two","paragraph_id":"para_1256"},{"text":"unrelated subjects, the court held, “Because we cannot know if either subject of I-722","paragraph_id":"para_1257"},{"text":"would have garnered popular support standing alone, we must declare the entire initiative","paragraph_id":"para_1258"},{"text":"void.” Id. at 828. Kiga relied on a 1951 case, Power, Inc. v. Huntley, 39 Wn.2d 191, 198-","paragraph_id":"para_1259"},{"text":"99, 235 P.2d 173 (1951), where the court also struck down an entire act that contained","paragraph_id":"para_1260"},{"text":"two distinct subjects relating to appropriation and corporation income tax. There, the","paragraph_id":"para_1261"},{"text":"unrelated measures were unable to pass the legislature in the special session on their own.","paragraph_id":"para_1262"},{"text":"Id. However, when the interests were combined into a single bill, both measures were","paragraph_id":"para_1263"},{"text":"enacted into law. Id. This was a classic case of logrolling, and it would also have been","paragraph_id":"para_1264"},{"text":"impossible for the court to determine which subject would have garnered popular support","paragraph_id":"para_1265"},{"text":"if the other subject did not pass. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_1266"},{"text":"The situation here is different. While in Kiga it was impossible to tell if either","paragraph_id":"para_1267"},{"text":"subject would have passed on its own, here subsection 12(5) deals with the discrete issue","paragraph_id":"para_1268"},{"text":"of repealing a severability clause of a different act. Because the rest of I-2066","paragraph_id":"para_1269"},{"text":"exclusively relates to protecting consumers’ access to natural gas, there are not two equal","paragraph_id":"para_1270"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1271"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1272"},{"text":"29","paragraph_id":"para_1273"},{"text":"and distinct subjects of the initiative that the voters could not distinguish between.","paragraph_id":"para_1274","court_paragraph":29},{"text":"Instead, here, a court can clearly tell that the bulk of the initiative would have passed","paragraph_id":"para_1275"},{"text":"absent subsection 12(5). Striking down I-2066 in its entirety simply because subsection","paragraph_id":"para_1276"},{"text":"12(5) fails under article II, section 19 would go against our policies of presuming an act’s","paragraph_id":"para_1277"},{"text":"constitutionality and upholding the power of the people to pass initiatives.","paragraph_id":"para_1278"},{"text":"Accordingly, I would hold that subsection 12(5) can be severed because a court","paragraph_id":"para_1279"},{"text":"can clearly assess that the remainder of I-2066 would have received majority support","paragraph_id":"para_1280"},{"text":"without that provision. I would uphold the rest of I-2066 for this reason.","paragraph_id":"para_1281"},{"text":"V","paragraph_id":"para_1282"},{"text":"CONCLUSION","paragraph_id":"para_1283"},{"text":"Courts are required to construe initiatives in favor of constitutionality when","paragraph_id":"para_1284"},{"text":"possible. This supports the right of the people to pass law by initiative, as enshrined in","paragraph_id":"para_1285"},{"text":"our state constitution. Although, as members of the judiciary, we at times may not agree","paragraph_id":"para_1286"},{"text":"with the policies behind an initiative, it is our job to maintain and uphold the law. Here,","paragraph_id":"para_1287"},{"text":"following our long-standing rules of constitutional interpretation, this court can uphold","paragraph_id":"para_1288"},{"text":"much of I-2066 as constitutional and should do so.","paragraph_id":"para_1289"},{"text":"I want to reiterate my concerns about the majority’s analysis. This court should","paragraph_id":"para_1290"},{"text":"not go so far as to hold that there are single-subject violations based on incidental impacts","paragraph_id":"para_1291"},{"text":"or policy changes. Our constitutional analysis requires a serious violation to strike down","paragraph_id":"para_1292"},{"text":"an act as unconstitutional. All that is required for a measure to survive under article II,","paragraph_id":"para_1293"},{"text":"section 19 is rational unity between the general subject and incidental subjects (vertical","paragraph_id":"para_1294"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1295"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1296"},{"text":"30","paragraph_id":"para_1297"},{"text":"unity) and rational unity among the provisions (horizontal unity). This is a low bar, as","paragraph_id":"para_1298","court_paragraph":30},{"text":"courts are to construe general initiatives liberally in favor of constitutionality. I-2066","paragraph_id":"para_1299"},{"text":"surpasses this bar. All the provisions (except subsection 12(5)) relate to the general","paragraph_id":"para_1300"},{"text":"subject of protecting consumers’ access to natural gas. The provisions relate to each","paragraph_id":"para_1301"},{"text":"other by each containing some measure that advances the overarching goal, especially","paragraph_id":"para_1302"},{"text":"when considered together.","paragraph_id":"para_1303"},{"text":"The majority’s arguments that the sections have too broad of an impact on certain","paragraph_id":"para_1304"},{"text":"authorities goes to article II, section 37 and should not be confused with article II, section","paragraph_id":"para_1305"},{"text":"19’s distinct single-subject requirements. As discussed, only sections 9, 10, and 11","paragraph_id":"para_1306"},{"text":"violate article II, section 37 by silently amending existing law.","paragraph_id":"para_1307"},{"text":"Next, while sections 9, 10, 11, and subsection 12(5) do not pass constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_1308"},{"text":"muster, they can be severed to preserve the rest of I-2066. It can be reasonably believed","paragraph_id":"para_1309"},{"text":"that the voters would have passed the remaining sections without these measures.","paragraph_id":"para_1310"},{"text":"I would uphold the remainder of I-2066 as constitutional. Accordingly, I dissent.","paragraph_id":"para_1311"},{"text":"Climate Solutions, et al. v. State of Washington, et al., No. 104240-0","paragraph_id":"para_1312"},{"text":"(Mungia, J., dissenting)","paragraph_id":"para_1313"},{"text":"31","paragraph_id":"para_1314"},{"text":"______________________________________","paragraph_id":"para_1315","court_paragraph":31},{"text":"________________________________________","paragraph_id":"para_1316"},{"text":"________________________________________","paragraph_id":"para_1317"}],"word_count":14742,"cites":[],"cited_by":[],"sha256":"bf823f880639785f2b9b938e49472c1dedd04d393268533987cb63087d3cf2aa","source_url":"https://www.courts.wa.gov/opinions/pdf/1042400.pdf","fetched_at":"2026-10-06T07:16:33.078+00:00","canonical":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/ai/judgments/us/wash-104-240-0-2026-09-17","risk_graph":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/risk?id=us:wash-104-240-0-2026-09-17","relations_graph":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/relations?id=us:wash-104-240-0-2026-09-17","changes":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/us-praxis/changes","agent":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/us-praxis/agent?id=us:wash-104-240-0-2026-09-17","neighbors":[{"id":"us:ohioctapp-ca2026-03-035-2026-10-05","name":"Alexander v. 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Haaland","decided":"2026-09-29","judgment_text":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:dcd-civil-action-no-2024-0990-2026-09-29","relations":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/relations?id=us:dcd-civil-action-no-2024-0990-2026-09-29","risk":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/risk?id=us:dcd-civil-action-no-2024-0990-2026-09-29"},{"id":"us:orctapp-a187044-2026-09-23","name":"Hayes Oyster Co. v. Dept. of Agriculture","decided":"2026-09-23","judgment_text":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:orctapp-a187044-2026-09-23","relations":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/relations?id=us:orctapp-a187044-2026-09-23","risk":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/risk?id=us:orctapp-a187044-2026-09-23"},{"id":"us:dcd-civil-action-no-2025-3646-2026-09-22","name":"Harris County, Texas v. 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