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,"para_918","para_919","para_920","para_921","para_922","para_923","para_924","para_925","para_926","para_927"],"kind":"front_matter"}],"paragraphs":[{"text":"- 478 -","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"Lauren Ramaekers et al., appellants, v.","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"Creighton University, a Nebraska","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"nonprofit corporation, appellee.","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"___ N.W.3d ___","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"Filed December 12, 2025. No. S-24-407.","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"1. Motions to Dismiss: Rules of the Supreme Court: Pleadings: Appeal","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"and Error. A district court’s grant of a motion to dismiss for failure","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"to state a claim under Neb. Ct. R. Pldg. § 6-1112(b)(6) is reviewed de","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"novo, accepting all the allegations in the complaint as true and drawing","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"all reasonable inferences in favor of the nonmoving party.","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"2. Rules of the Supreme Court: Pleadings: Appeal and Error. An appel-","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"late court reviews a district court’s denial of a motion to amend under","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"Neb. Ct. R. Pldg. § 6-1115(a) for an abuse of discretion. However, an","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"appellate court reviews de novo any underlying legal conclusion that the","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"proposed amendments would be futile.","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"3. Moot Question. Mootness refers to events occurring after the filing of a","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"suit that eradicate the requisite personal interest in the dispute’s resolu-","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"tion that existed at the beginning of the litigation.","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"4. Actions: Moot Question. An action becomes moot when the issues","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"initially presented in the proceedings no longer exist or the parties lack","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"a legally cognizable interest in the outcome of the action.","paragraph_id":"para_26"},{"text":"5. Moot Question. The central question in a mootness analysis is","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"whether changes in circumstances have forestalled any occasion for","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"meaningful relief.","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"6. Moot Question: Dismissal and Nonsuit. A moot case is subject to","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"dismissal.","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"7. Motions to Dismiss: Pleadings. To prevail against a motion to dis-","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"miss for failure to state a claim, a plaintiff must allege sufficient facts,","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"accepted as true, to state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"8. ____: ____. A motion to dismiss should be granted only in the unusual","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"case in which a plaintiff includes allegations that show on the face of the","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"complaint that there is some insuperable bar to relief.","paragraph_id":"para_37"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Online Library","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"www.nebraska.gov/apps-courts-epub/","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"10/17/2026 12:24 PM CDT","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"- 479 -","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"9. Contracts: Parties: Intent. An implied contract arises where the inten-","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"tion of the parties is not expressed in writing but where the circum-","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"stances are such as to show a mutual intent to contract.","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"10. ____: ____: ____. The determination of the parties’ intent to make a","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"contract is to be gathered from objective manifestations—the conduct","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"of the parties, language used, or acts done by them, or other pertinent","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"circumstances surrounding the transaction. If the parties’ conduct is","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"sufficient to show an implied contract, it is just as enforceable as an","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"express contract.","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"11. Contracts: Intent. As a general matter, the terms of an implied con-","paragraph_id":"para_55"},{"text":"tract are a question of fact to be determined by the jury based on the","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"evidence presented.","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"12. Appeal and Error. Alleged errors of the lower court must be both spe-","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"cifically assigned and specifically argued in the brief of the party assert-","paragraph_id":"para_59"},{"text":"ing the errors to be considered by an appellate court.","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"13. Conversion: Words and Phrases. Conversion is any unauthorized","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"or wrongful act of dominion exerted over another’s property which","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"deprives the owner of his property permanently or for an indefinite","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"period of time.","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"14. Conversion: Pleadings. In an action for conversion, the plaintiff must","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"allege facts showing a right to immediate possession of the property at","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"the time of the conversion.","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"15. Consumer Protection: Intent. The Consumer Protection Act, Neb.","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"Rev. Stat. §§ 59-1601 to 59-1622 (Reissue 2021), was intended to be an","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"antitrust measure to protect Nebraska consumers from monopolies and","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"price-fixing conspiracies.","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"16. ____: ____. The purpose of the Consumer Protection Act is to provide","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"consumers with protection against unlawful practices in the conduct of","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"any trade or commerce which directly affects the people of Nebraska.","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"17. Pleadings: Rules of the Supreme Court. Where leave to amend is","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"sought before discovery is complete and before a motion for summary","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"judgment has been filed, leave to amend should be denied as futile only","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"if the proposed amendment cannot withstand a motion to dismiss under","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"Neb. Ct. R. Pldg. § 6-1112(b)(6).","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"18. Pleadings. Leave to amend should not be granted when it is clear that","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"the defect cannot be cured by amendment.","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"Appeal from the District Court for Douglas County: Marlon","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"A. Polk, Judge. Affirmed in part, and in part reversed and","paragraph_id":"para_83"},{"text":"remanded for further proceedings.","paragraph_id":"para_84"},{"text":"- 480 -","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"Robert M. Sullivan, of Sullivan Law, P.C., L.L.O., for","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"appellants.","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"William F. Hargens, Abigail M. Moland, and Britni A.","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"Summers, of McGrath, North, Mullin & Kratz, P.C., L.L.O.,","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"for appellee.","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"Funke, C.J., Miller-Lerman, Cassel, Stacy, Papik,","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"Freudenberg, and Bergevin, JJ.","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"Funke, C.J.","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"I. INTRODUCTION","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"During the COVID-19 pandemic, Creighton University","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"(Creighton) imposed a vaccine mandate on all its students.","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"The appellants are Creighton students, all but one of whom","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"declined to receive the vaccine by the appointed deadline,","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"which resulted in their unenrollment from Creighton. The","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"students brought suit, alleging claims for breach of contract,","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"due process violations, conversion, negligence, and viola-","paragraph_id":"para_105"},{"text":"tions of Nebraska’s Consumer Protection Act (NCPA). 1 The","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"district court for Douglas County dismissed their allegations","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"with prejudice for failure to state a claim, and the students","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"appealed. We conclude that the students have stated plau-","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"sible claims for breach of an implied contract and conver-","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"sion. Otherwise, we find no merit to the students’ remaining","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"claims. Accordingly, we reverse the district court’s decision","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"and remand the cause for further proceedings on the breach of","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"contract and conversion claims but affirm the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"decision on all other matters.","paragraph_id":"para_115"},{"text":"II. BACKGROUND","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"Before we begin, we make a procedural and factual note.","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"This matter is before us on a motion to dismiss. During the","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"hearing on the motion to dismiss, however, the parties offered","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"1 Neb Rev. Stat. §§ 59-1601 to 59-1622 (Reissue 2021).","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"- 481 -","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"evidence outside of the scope of the pleadings, which is inap-","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"propriate on a motion to dismiss. 2 As a result, Creighton now","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"argues that the motion was converted into one for summary","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"judgment and that, therefore, on our review, we should con-","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"sider matters outside of the pleadings. Creighton mentions a","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"variety of such materials in its brief.","paragraph_id":"para_131"},{"text":"In this case, we see no reason to consider this matter as","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"anything other than a motion to dismiss. The district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"order gave no indication that it treated the matter as a motion","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"for summary judgment. To the contrary, the order described the","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"matter as a motion to dismiss and captioned its order accord-","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"ingly. The parties’ filings on the matter also all referenced","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"a motion to dismiss. As such, we decline to consider facts","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"outside of those alleged in the pleadings or in the materials","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"incorporated thereby, and the following recitation of the facts","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"comports accordingly.","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"1. Creighton’s Vaccine Policy","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"On May 26, 2021, Creighton issued a statement indicating","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"that, effective July 7, 2021, it would require all students to","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"be vaccinated against COVID-19. This statement added the","paragraph_id":"para_145"},{"text":"COVID-19 vaccination to the list of mandatory vaccines stu-","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"dents were required to receive, including vaccines for measles,","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"mumps, and rubella. The students were also informed that they","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"could not register for classes or housing until proof of vaccina-","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"tion had been provided.","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"2 See DMK Biodiesel v. McCoy, 285 Neb. 974, 980, 830 N.W.2d 490, 496","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"(2013) (“[f]or purposes of a motion to dismiss, ‘“the court generally must","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"ignore materials outside the pleadings, but it may consider some materi-","paragraph_id":"para_153"},{"text":"als that are part of the public record or do not contradict the complaint,","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"as well as materials that are necessarily embraced by the pleadings”’”).","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"See, also, Trausch v. Hagemeier, 313 Neb. 538, 550, 985 N.W.2d 402,","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"413 (2023) (“[b]ecause a motion to dismiss under [Neb. Ct. R. Pldg.]","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"§ 6-1112(b)(6) tests the legal sufficiency of the complaint, not the claim’s","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"substantive merits, a court may typically look only at the face of the com-","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"plaint to decide a motion to dismiss”).","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"- 482 -","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"Creighton’s policy did not permit religious exemptions but","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"allowed students to request a medical exemption. Students","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"could also request an exemption due to the “Emergency Use","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":"Authorization” (EUA) status of the vaccine, although that","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"exemption would be valid only until the U.S. Food and Drug","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"Administration (FDA) approved a vaccine. To receive an EUA","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"exemption, students had to sign a form agreeing with the state-","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"ment “I am requesting to decline the COVID-19 vaccination","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"until it has full approval by the [FDA] at which time I agree to","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"meet this requirement within 6-8 weeks.”","paragraph_id":"para_175"},{"text":"On August 23, 2021, the FDA approved the Pfizer vaccine.","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"Thereafter, Creighton mandated through correspondence that","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"all students, including those who had received EUA exemp-","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"tions, receive the first dose of the vaccine by 4:30 p.m. on","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"September 7. In this correspondence, Creighton informed stu-","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"dents that they could (1) be vaccinated, (2) withdraw from","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"Creighton prior to September 7, or (3) wait for Creighton to","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"administratively withdraw them.","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"2. Appellants","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"The appellants were all students at Creighton at the time","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"of the vaccine mandate. The students maintained religious","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"objections to receiving the vaccine. The record contains signed","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"EUA exemptions from four of the students, but it is unclear","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"from the record whether the other students also submitted such","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"a form.","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"In response to Creighton’s actions, several students declined","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"to receive the vaccine. As a result, on September 9, 2021, those","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"students were unenrolled and barred from campus. Creighton","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"also placed a hold on their student accounts, preventing them","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"from accessing their transcripts. One student, Kristin Hultgren,","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"did receive the vaccine but subsequently experienced long-","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"lasting negative side effects. She was given a medical exemp-","paragraph_id":"para_197"},{"text":"tion from receiving the second dose of the vaccine. Yet another","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"student opted to voluntarily withdraw from Creighton prior to","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"the September 7 deadline.","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"- 483 -","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"3. Procedural History","paragraph_id":"para_206"},{"text":"(a) Injunctive Relief","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"Just prior to the 4:30 p.m. deadline on September 7, 2021,","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"several students filed a motion seeking to enjoin Creighton","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"from unenrolling the students who chose not to be vaccinated.","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"The complaint initially alleged only claims for breach of con-","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"tract and unjust enrichment.","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"Ultimately, the court denied injunctive relief. In doing so,","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"it found that to the extent there was a contract between the","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"parties, the contract included the EUA agreements. As such,","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"the court concluded that the students had breached the con-","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"tract by failing to be vaccinated once the FDA approved the","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"Pfizer vaccine. The court also found that the students had","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"not shown any irreparable harm or a likelihood of success on","paragraph_id":"para_219"},{"text":"the merits.","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"The students appealed. This court heard the matter, but","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"determined that, because of the lack of a final, appealable","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"order, we were without jurisdiction over the case. 3 As such, the","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"appeal was dismissed.","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"(b) Operative Complaint","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"Following our decision, several related actions by the stu-","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"dents were consolidated, resulting in the configuration of","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"appellants currently party to this action, and the operative","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"complaint was filed. That complaint alleged five causes of","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"action: (1) breach of implied contract, (2) violation of due","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"process, (3) conversion, (4) negligence, and (5) violations of","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"the NCPA.","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"(c) Subsequent Proceedings","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"In response, Creighton filed a motion to dismiss or, alterna-","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"tively, for a more definite statement. The district court granted","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"3 See, Ramaekers v. Creighton University, 312 Neb. 248, 978 N.W.2d 298","paragraph_id":"para_236"},{"text":"(2022).","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"- 484 -","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_242"},{"text":"Creighton’s motion and dismissed the complaint with preju-","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"dice. In doing so, the court provided no reasoning and stated","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"only that “[h]aving considered the evidence as appropriate and","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"the briefs of the parties, [it] finds that [Creighton’s] Motion to","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"Dismiss should be, and hereby is, granted.”","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"The students filed a motion for a new trial and sought leave","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"to amend the complaint to make it more definite and certain.","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"The court denied this motion, again stating only that “[h]aving","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"considered the arguments of the parties and being fully advised,","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"[the motion] is hereby overruled and denied.”","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"The students appealed, and we moved the matter to our","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"docket. 4","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"III. ASSIGNMENTS OF ERROR","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"The students assign, restated, that the district court erred","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"in (1) granting Creighton’s motion to dismiss their complaint","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"with prejudice for failure to state a claim and (2) denying their","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"request to file an amended complaint.","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"IV. STANDARD OF REVIEW","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"[1] A district court’s grant of a motion to dismiss for fail-","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"ure to state a claim under Neb. Ct. R. Pldg. § 6-1112(b)(6) is","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"reviewed de novo, accepting all the allegations in the com-","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"plaint as true and drawing all reasonable inferences in favor of","paragraph_id":"para_264"},{"text":"the nonmoving party. 5","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"[2] An appellate court reviews a district court’s denial of a","paragraph_id":"para_266"},{"text":"motion to amend under Neb. Ct. R. Pldg. § 6-1115(a) for an","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"abuse of discretion. However, an appellate court reviews de","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"novo any underlying legal conclusion that the proposed amend-","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"ments would be futile. 6","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"4 Neb. Rev. Stat. § 24-1106(3) (Cum. Supp. 2024).","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"5 Anderson v. Wells Fargo Fin. Accept., 269 Neb. 595, 694 N.W.2d 625","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"(2005).","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"6 Sinu v. Concordia University, 313 Neb. 218, 983 N.W.2d 511 (2023).","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"- 485 -","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"V. ANALYSIS","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"1. Mootness","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"In April 2022, after the facts of this case were already","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"developed, Creighton changed its vaccine policy to accom-","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"modate religious exemptions. Accordingly, Creighton now","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"asserts that the students’ claims are moot because, based","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"on its new vaccine policy, the students could “stay enrolled","paragraph_id":"para_286"},{"text":"or reenroll at Creighton without obtaining the COVID-19","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"vaccine.” 7 Indeed, Creighton points out that several of the","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"students did, in fact, return and have since graduated from","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"Creighton. Thus, we must first determine whether Creighton’s","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"change in policy has rendered this appeal moot. We conclude","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"that it has not.","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"[3-6] Mootness refers to events occurring after the filing of","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"a suit that eradicate the requisite personal interest in the dis-","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"pute’s resolution that existed at the beginning of the litigation. 8","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"An action becomes moot when the issues initially presented","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"in the proceedings no longer exist or the parties lack a legally","paragraph_id":"para_297"},{"text":"cognizable interest in the outcome of the action. 9 The central","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"question in a mootness analysis is whether changes in circum-","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"stances have forestalled any occasion for meaningful relief. 10","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"A moot case is subject to dismissal. 11","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"Here, it matters not that Creighton eventually changed its","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"policy regarding vaccines. We have held that a “‘suit that","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"seeks damages for harm caused by past practices is not ren-","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"dered moot by the cessation of the challenged conduct.’” 12","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"7 Brief for appellee at 25.","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"8 City of Hastings v. Sheets, 317 Neb. 88, 8 N.W.3d 771 (2024).","paragraph_id":"para_307"},{"text":"9 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"10 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"11 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"12 Rath v. City of Sutton, 267 Neb. 265, 274, 673 N.W.2d 869, 880 (2004).","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"- 486 -","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"In addition, we have made clear that mere voluntary cessa-","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"tion of allegedly unlawful conduct is insufficient to render","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"an action moot. “If voluntary cessation of that kind rendered","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"a case moot, ‘a defendant could engage in unlawful conduct,","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"stop when sued to have the case declared moot, then pick up","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"where he left off, repeating this cycle until he achieves all his","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"unlawful ends.’” 13 Accordingly, we conclude that the matter is","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"not moot and proceed to the substance of the appeal.","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"2. Dismissal for Failure","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"to State Claim","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"Broadly, the students assign that the district court improp-","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"erly dismissed all the allegations in their complaint, finding","paragraph_id":"para_328"},{"text":"that they had failed to state a claim on any of their causes of","paragraph_id":"para_329"},{"text":"action. The students contend that they have adequately pled the","paragraph_id":"para_330"},{"text":"necessary elements on each of their claims. Creighton counters","paragraph_id":"para_331"},{"text":"that the district court did not err, and that all the claims are","paragraph_id":"para_332"},{"text":"insufficient to withstand a motion to dismiss.","paragraph_id":"para_333"},{"text":"(a) Principles Guiding Analysis of Motion","paragraph_id":"para_334"},{"text":"to Dismiss for Failure to State Claim","paragraph_id":"para_335"},{"text":"Civil actions are controlled by a liberal pleading regime;","paragraph_id":"para_336"},{"text":"a party is required to set forth only a short and plain state-","paragraph_id":"para_337"},{"text":"ment of the claim showing that the pleader is entitled to relief","paragraph_id":"para_338"},{"text":"and is not required to plead legal theories or cite appropriate","paragraph_id":"para_339"},{"text":"statutes so long as the pleading gives fair notice of the claims","paragraph_id":"para_340"},{"text":"asserted. 14 The rationale for a liberal notice pleading standard","paragraph_id":"para_341"},{"text":"in civil actions is that when parties have a valid claim, they","paragraph_id":"para_342"},{"text":"should recover on it regardless of failing to perceive the true","paragraph_id":"para_343"},{"text":"basis of the claim at the pleading stage. 15","paragraph_id":"para_344"},{"text":"13 See Stewart v. Heineman, 296 Neb. 262, 297, 892 N.W.2d 542, 565","paragraph_id":"para_345"},{"text":"(2017). Accord Nesbitt v. Frakes, 300 Neb. 1, 911 N.W.2d 598 (2018).","paragraph_id":"para_346"},{"text":"14 Edwards v. Estate of Clark, 313 Neb. 94, 982 N.W.2d 788 (2022).","paragraph_id":"para_347"},{"text":"15 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_348"},{"text":"- 487 -","paragraph_id":"para_349"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_350"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_351"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_352"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_353"},{"text":"[7,8] To prevail against a motion to dismiss for failure to","paragraph_id":"para_354"},{"text":"state a claim, a plaintiff must allege sufficient facts, accepted","paragraph_id":"para_355"},{"text":"as true, to state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face. 16","paragraph_id":"para_356"},{"text":"A motion to dismiss should be granted only in the unusual","paragraph_id":"para_357"},{"text":"case in which a plaintiff includes allegations that show on","paragraph_id":"para_358"},{"text":"the face of the complaint that there is some insuperable bar","paragraph_id":"para_359"},{"text":"to relief. 17","paragraph_id":"para_360"},{"text":"(b) Breach of Implied Contract","paragraph_id":"para_361"},{"text":"We turn first to the students’ claim that they have stated","paragraph_id":"para_362"},{"text":"a valid claim for breach of contract. The students concede","paragraph_id":"para_363"},{"text":"that there is no express contract at issue. Instead, they allege","paragraph_id":"para_364"},{"text":"that the parties are bound by an implied contract based","paragraph_id":"para_365"},{"text":"on Creighton’s offer to educate the students in exchange","paragraph_id":"para_366"},{"text":"for the students’ completion of enrollment forms and pay-","paragraph_id":"para_367"},{"text":"ment of tuition. The students allege that Creighton then","paragraph_id":"para_368"},{"text":"breached this implied contract by adding a requirement that","paragraph_id":"para_369"},{"text":"students be vaccinated against COVID-19, without providing","paragraph_id":"para_370"},{"text":"additional consideration.","paragraph_id":"para_371"},{"text":"Creighton, however, counters that there is no implied con-","paragraph_id":"para_372"},{"text":"tract between the parties for several reasons. First, it asserts","paragraph_id":"para_373"},{"text":"that its student handbook, which provides that none of its","paragraph_id":"para_374"},{"text":"policies or procedures should be seen as creating a contract","paragraph_id":"para_375"},{"text":"between Creighton and its students, precludes the possibil-","paragraph_id":"para_376"},{"text":"ity of an implied contract. Second, citing case law from","paragraph_id":"para_377"},{"text":"various jurisdictions, Creighton argues that even if such a con-","paragraph_id":"para_378"},{"text":"tract exists, universities are permitted to impose vaccination","paragraph_id":"para_379"},{"text":"requirements, and that it explicitly reserved such a right in its","paragraph_id":"para_380"},{"text":"student handbook. Lastly, Creighton contends, again, that if","paragraph_id":"para_381"},{"text":"such a contract exists, the EUA waivers must be incorporated","paragraph_id":"para_382"},{"text":"into the contract, as well. From that perspective, it argues that","paragraph_id":"para_383"},{"text":"the students breached the contract by not being vaccinated","paragraph_id":"para_384"},{"text":"16 Nieveen v. TAX 106, 317 Neb. 425, 10 N.W.3d 365 (2024).","paragraph_id":"para_385"},{"text":"17 Trausch, supra note 2.","paragraph_id":"para_386"},{"text":"- 488 -","paragraph_id":"para_387"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_388"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_389"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_390"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_391"},{"text":"by the appointed deadline, thereby justifying Creighton’s deci-","paragraph_id":"para_392"},{"text":"sion to unenroll them.","paragraph_id":"para_393"},{"text":"We agree with the students and conclude that they have","paragraph_id":"para_394"},{"text":"alleged a claim for a breach of an implied contract.","paragraph_id":"para_395"},{"text":"[9-11] An implied contract arises where the intention of","paragraph_id":"para_396"},{"text":"the parties is not expressed in writing but where the circum-","paragraph_id":"para_397"},{"text":"stances are such as to show a mutual intent to contract. 18","paragraph_id":"para_398"},{"text":"The determination of the parties’ intent to make a contract","paragraph_id":"para_399"},{"text":"is to be gathered from objective manifestations—the con-","paragraph_id":"para_400"},{"text":"duct of the parties, language used, or acts done by them, or","paragraph_id":"para_401"},{"text":"other pertinent circumstances surrounding the transaction. 19","paragraph_id":"para_402"},{"text":"If the parties’ conduct is sufficient to show an implied","paragraph_id":"para_403"},{"text":"contract, it is just as enforceable as an express contract. 20","paragraph_id":"para_404"},{"text":"As a general matter, the terms of an implied contract are a","paragraph_id":"para_405"},{"text":"question of fact to be determined by the jury based on the","paragraph_id":"para_406"},{"text":"evidence presented. 21","paragraph_id":"para_407"},{"text":"This court has before recognized that the relationship","paragraph_id":"para_408"},{"text":"between a university and its students is often contractual in","paragraph_id":"para_409"},{"text":"nature. Such was the case in Armstrong v. Clarkson College, 22","paragraph_id":"para_410"},{"text":"a case in which we determined that an implied contract","paragraph_id":"para_411"},{"text":"existed between a college and one of its students regarding","paragraph_id":"para_412"},{"text":"the college’s obligation to provide the student a clinical site.","paragraph_id":"para_413"},{"text":"There, we determined that the contract had not arisen from","paragraph_id":"para_414"},{"text":"the handbook, which expressly disclaimed the formation of","paragraph_id":"para_415"},{"text":"any contractual relationships and reserved to the college the","paragraph_id":"para_416"},{"text":"unilateral power to modify the handbook. 23 Instead, we found","paragraph_id":"para_417"},{"text":"that the contract had been created at the time of enrollment","paragraph_id":"para_418"},{"text":"18 Moore v. Nebraska Acct. & Disclosure Comm., 310 Neb. 302, 965 N.W.2d","paragraph_id":"para_419"},{"text":"564 (2021).","paragraph_id":"para_420"},{"text":"19 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_421"},{"text":"20 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_422"},{"text":"21 Armstrong v. Clarkson College, 297 Neb. 595, 901 N.W.2d 1(2017).","paragraph_id":"para_423"},{"text":"22 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_424"},{"text":"23 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_425"},{"text":"- 489 -","paragraph_id":"para_426"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_427"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_428"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_429"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_430"},{"text":"by the student’s conduct of accepting the college’s offer of","paragraph_id":"para_431"},{"text":"enrollment, which included the college’s promise to provide","paragraph_id":"para_432"},{"text":"the student with a site to complete clinical work as part of","paragraph_id":"para_433"},{"text":"its program. 24","paragraph_id":"para_434"},{"text":"Other jurisdictions have come to the same conclusion. 25","paragraph_id":"para_435"},{"text":"For example, in Kashmiri v. Regents of University of Cal., 26","paragraph_id":"para_436"},{"text":"the California Court of Appeal concluded that a university","paragraph_id":"para_437"},{"text":"had an implied contractual obligation not to raise its fees dur-","paragraph_id":"para_438"},{"text":"ing the course of its students’ enrollment, because such had","paragraph_id":"para_439"},{"text":"been promised to the students at the time of their admission","paragraph_id":"para_440"},{"text":"and because the same was reflected on the university’s web-","paragraph_id":"para_441"},{"text":"site and in its catalogs. As in Armstrong, the court concluded","paragraph_id":"para_442"},{"text":"that the contract was formed by “‘“the act of matriculation,","paragraph_id":"para_443"},{"text":"together with [the] payment of required fees.”’” 27 As such,","paragraph_id":"para_444"},{"text":"the policies, handbooks, or catalogs were relevant only to the","paragraph_id":"para_445"},{"text":"extent they defined the terms of the implied contract but were","paragraph_id":"para_446"},{"text":"not necessarily relevant to its creation. 28","paragraph_id":"para_447"},{"text":"Based on these principles, the issue to be determined in","paragraph_id":"para_448"},{"text":"our review of the motion to dismiss is whether the students","paragraph_id":"para_449"},{"text":"have adequately alleged conduct that would create an implied","paragraph_id":"para_450"},{"text":"24 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_451"},{"text":"25 See, McCudden v. Canisius Coll., 236 A.D.3d 1441, 230 N.Y.S.3d 492","paragraph_id":"para_452"},{"text":"(2025) (recognizing that nature of relationship between university and","paragraph_id":"para_453"},{"text":"student is contractual, but concluding that complaint at issue was too","paragraph_id":"para_454"},{"text":"conclusory to state valid claim for breach of contract); Univ. of Miss. Med.","paragraph_id":"para_455"},{"text":"Center v. Hughes, 765 So. 2d 528 (Miss. 2000) (concluding that although","paragraph_id":"para_456"},{"text":"relationship is contractual in nature, university retains right to change","paragraph_id":"para_457"},{"text":"academic degree requirements). See, also, Corso v. Creighton University,","paragraph_id":"para_458"},{"text":"731 F.2d 529 (8th Cir. 1984) (reaching same conclusion regarding status of","paragraph_id":"para_459"},{"text":"student-to-university relationship at federal level; case, however, involved","paragraph_id":"para_460"},{"text":"express rather than implied contract).","paragraph_id":"para_461"},{"text":"26 Kashmiri v. Regents of University of Cal., 156 Cal. App. 4th 809, 67 Cal.","paragraph_id":"para_462"},{"text":"Rptr. 3d 635 (2007).","paragraph_id":"para_463"},{"text":"27 Id. at 824, 67 Cal. Rptr. 3d at 646 (quoting Andersen v. Regents of","paragraph_id":"para_464"},{"text":"University of California, 22 Cal. App. 3d 763, 99 Cal. Rptr. 531 (1972)).","paragraph_id":"para_465"},{"text":"28 Kashmiri v. Regents of University of Cal., supra note 26.","paragraph_id":"para_466"},{"text":"- 490 -","paragraph_id":"para_467"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_468"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_469"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_470"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_471"},{"text":"contract. The specific terms of such an agreement need not be","paragraph_id":"para_472"},{"text":"determined by this court at this point.","paragraph_id":"para_473"},{"text":"Based on our review of the complaint and the conduct","paragraph_id":"para_474"},{"text":"of the parties alleged therein, we cannot conclude that the","paragraph_id":"para_475"},{"text":"students have failed to state a claim. Specifically, the stu-","paragraph_id":"para_476"},{"text":"dents in this case allege that an implied contract existed","paragraph_id":"para_477"},{"text":"between Creighton and its students, which Armstrong and","paragraph_id":"para_478"},{"text":"Kashmiri make clear is a cognizable claim. In fact, the case","paragraph_id":"para_479"},{"text":"at bar is substantially similar to the cases discussed above.","paragraph_id":"para_480"},{"text":"As in Kashmiri, this contract is alleged to have arisen from","paragraph_id":"para_481"},{"text":"Creighton’s conduct of offering to educate the students in","paragraph_id":"para_482"},{"text":"return for the students’ conduct of enrolling at the univer-","paragraph_id":"para_483"},{"text":"sity and paying tuition. The complaint details that Creighton","paragraph_id":"para_484"},{"text":"then breached this contract by unilaterally modifying the","paragraph_id":"para_485"},{"text":"agreement to require the students to be vaccinated against","paragraph_id":"para_486"},{"text":"COVID-19, by refusing to permit the students to finish their","paragraph_id":"para_487"},{"text":"semester that had already begun, and by prohibiting the stu-","paragraph_id":"para_488"},{"text":"dents from accessing their transcripts. The complaint explains","paragraph_id":"para_489"},{"text":"that this conduct violates “CU policy 2.1.25” and the antidis-","paragraph_id":"para_490"},{"text":"crimination policy located in “paragraph Z” of Creighton’s","paragraph_id":"para_491"},{"text":"student handbook. These allegations are sufficient. It is suffi-","paragraph_id":"para_492"},{"text":"cient that the students allege that the parties’ conduct created","paragraph_id":"para_493"},{"text":"a contract and that the contract has been breached.","paragraph_id":"para_494"},{"text":"We do, nonetheless, acknowledge Creighton’s assertion","paragraph_id":"para_495"},{"text":"that the complaint does not include, beyond that detailed","paragraph_id":"para_496"},{"text":"above, much information regarding the terms of this implied","paragraph_id":"para_497"},{"text":"contract. That, however, is not fatal to the students’ claim. As","paragraph_id":"para_498"},{"text":"stated above, it is not for this court, in reviewing a motion","paragraph_id":"para_499"},{"text":"to dismiss for failure to state a claim, to identify the precise","paragraph_id":"para_500"},{"text":"terms of the implied contract. We leave such a determina-","paragraph_id":"para_501"},{"text":"tion to a fact finder. Accordingly, Creighton’s arguments","paragraph_id":"para_502"},{"text":"that to the extent the parties reached any implied contract,","paragraph_id":"para_503"},{"text":"such contract allowed Creighton to impose additional vaccine","paragraph_id":"para_504"},{"text":"requirements, and that the students additionally agreed to be","paragraph_id":"para_505"},{"text":"vaccinated pursuant to the EUA waivers, are premature and","paragraph_id":"para_506"},{"text":"irrelevant to our current review.","paragraph_id":"para_507"},{"text":"- 491 -","paragraph_id":"para_508"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_509"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_510"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_511"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_512"},{"text":"Therefore, drawing all reasonable conclusions in favor of","paragraph_id":"para_513"},{"text":"the students, we conclude that they have stated a claim for","paragraph_id":"para_514"},{"text":"relief based on a breach of an implied contract, and the district","paragraph_id":"para_515"},{"text":"court erred in finding to the contrary.","paragraph_id":"para_516"},{"text":"(c) Violation of Due Process","paragraph_id":"para_517"},{"text":"[12] In their complaint, the students also allege that","paragraph_id":"para_518"},{"text":"Creighton violated their due process rights. Their allegations","paragraph_id":"para_519"},{"text":"seem to be based on the notion that Creighton provided no","paragraph_id":"para_520"},{"text":"grievance procedure for challenging the vaccination require-","paragraph_id":"para_521"},{"text":"ment. Although the students’ brief generally assigns that the","paragraph_id":"para_522"},{"text":"district court erred in dismissing their claims, there is no","paragraph_id":"para_523"},{"text":"specific mention of, or argument related to, this claim in the","paragraph_id":"para_524"},{"text":"students’ brief on appeal, and their reply brief did not counter","paragraph_id":"para_525"},{"text":"Creighton’s argument that this claim had been abandoned. We","paragraph_id":"para_526"},{"text":"have consistently stated that alleged errors of the lower court","paragraph_id":"para_527"},{"text":"must be both specifically assigned and specifically argued in","paragraph_id":"para_528"},{"text":"the brief of the party asserting the errors to be considered by","paragraph_id":"para_529"},{"text":"an appellate court. 29 Accordingly, we agree that the students","paragraph_id":"para_530"},{"text":"have abandoned this claim.","paragraph_id":"para_531"},{"text":"(d) Conversion","paragraph_id":"para_532"},{"text":"The students’ third cause of action is one for conversion.","paragraph_id":"para_533"},{"text":"By way of additional background, once enrolled at","paragraph_id":"para_534"},{"text":"Creighton, students were required to sign a “Statement of","paragraph_id":"para_535"},{"text":"Financial Responsibility,” agreeing that if they failed to pay","paragraph_id":"para_536"},{"text":"any moneys owed to Creighton, the university would place a","paragraph_id":"para_537"},{"text":"hold on their accounts, preventing the students from register-","paragraph_id":"para_538"},{"text":"ing for classes and housing, obtaining transcripts, or receiving","paragraph_id":"para_539"},{"text":"a diploma. Accordingly, when the students were withdrawn","paragraph_id":"para_540"},{"text":"from Creighton, a hold was placed on some of their student","paragraph_id":"para_541"},{"text":"accounts and records. As a result, some students, although the","paragraph_id":"para_542"},{"text":"complaint does not allege which ones, were unable to access","paragraph_id":"para_543"},{"text":"29 State v. Goynes, 318 Neb. 413, 16 N.W.3d 373 (2025).","paragraph_id":"para_544"},{"text":"- 492 -","paragraph_id":"para_545"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_546"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_547"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_548"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_549"},{"text":"their transcripts despite the fact that the students had paid all","paragraph_id":"para_550"},{"text":"tuition and fees up until the fall 2021 semester.","paragraph_id":"para_551"},{"text":"The students assert that Creighton’s hold prevented them","paragraph_id":"para_552"},{"text":"from being able to register for classes at Creighton or to","paragraph_id":"para_553"},{"text":"transfer their credits to another university. Therefore, the","paragraph_id":"para_554"},{"text":"students also assert that this “constituted unauthorized and","paragraph_id":"para_555"},{"text":"wrongful dominion” over their personal property and resulted","paragraph_id":"para_556"},{"text":"in a denial of their right to said property. The students rely on","paragraph_id":"para_557"},{"text":"principles of forfeiture, particularly the notion that a forfei-","paragraph_id":"para_558"},{"text":"ture will not be found in the construction of a contract absent","paragraph_id":"para_559"},{"text":"an explicit provision. Although not entirely clear, it seems","paragraph_id":"para_560"},{"text":"to be the students’ position that, because the statement of","paragraph_id":"para_561"},{"text":"financial responsibility contains no express forfeiture clause,","paragraph_id":"para_562"},{"text":"its enforcement would result in an improper forfeiture of the","paragraph_id":"para_563"},{"text":"students’ credits. Creighton counters that the students do not","paragraph_id":"para_564"},{"text":"possess any ownership interest in their transcripts or previous","paragraph_id":"para_565"},{"text":"credits, and that because the students had not yet paid for the","paragraph_id":"para_566"},{"text":"fall 2021 semester, Creighton was permitted to place a hold on","paragraph_id":"para_567"},{"text":"their accounts.","paragraph_id":"para_568"},{"text":"[13,14] Conversion is any unauthorized or wrongful act of","paragraph_id":"para_569"},{"text":"dominion exerted over another’s property which deprives the","paragraph_id":"para_570"},{"text":"owner of his property permanently or for an indefinite period","paragraph_id":"para_571"},{"text":"of time. 30 In an action for conversion, the plaintiff must allege","paragraph_id":"para_572"},{"text":"facts showing a right to immediate possession of the property","paragraph_id":"para_573"},{"text":"at the time of the conversion. 31","paragraph_id":"para_574"},{"text":"The parties do not direct us to any cases in which we have","paragraph_id":"para_575"},{"text":"discussed whether students have a property right in school","paragraph_id":"para_576"},{"text":"records or transcripts, and we are not aware of any such cases.","paragraph_id":"para_577"},{"text":"Other jurisdictions have considered the matter with mixed","paragraph_id":"para_578"},{"text":"results. Some states have declined to find that such an interest","paragraph_id":"para_579"},{"text":"30 Peterson v. Homesite Indemnity Co., 287 Neb. 48, 840 N.W.2d 885 (2013).","paragraph_id":"para_580"},{"text":"31 Prososki v. Commercial Nat. Bank, 219 Neb. 607, 365 N.W.2d 427 (1985).","paragraph_id":"para_581"},{"text":"- 493 -","paragraph_id":"para_582"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_583"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_584"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_585"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_586"},{"text":"exists, 32 while other states have found that such an interest","paragraph_id":"para_587"},{"text":"does exist. 33","paragraph_id":"para_588"},{"text":"Based on our set principles of conversion, we conclude","paragraph_id":"para_589"},{"text":"that the students have stated a plausible claim for relief such","paragraph_id":"para_590"},{"text":"that they can overcome a motion to dismiss. The operative","paragraph_id":"para_591"},{"text":"complaint alleges that the students maintain a personal interest","paragraph_id":"para_592"},{"text":"in their transcripts and credits because they earned the credits","paragraph_id":"para_593"},{"text":"and paid for such credits, that the school exercised wrongful","paragraph_id":"para_594"},{"text":"control over those transcripts and credits, and that the students","paragraph_id":"para_595"},{"text":"were damaged by such wrongful control.","paragraph_id":"para_596"},{"text":"As such, the district court erred in dismissing this claim.","paragraph_id":"para_597"},{"text":"(e) Negligence and NCPA","paragraph_id":"para_598"},{"text":"Finally, the students assert that Creighton was negligent in","paragraph_id":"para_599"},{"text":"its administration of the vaccine and that, in its negligence,","paragraph_id":"para_600"},{"text":"it also violated the NCPA. It is the contention of the students","paragraph_id":"para_601"},{"text":"that neither of these claims is barred by the federal Public","paragraph_id":"para_602"},{"text":"Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act (PREP act).","paragraph_id":"para_603"},{"text":"More specifically, the students allege that in requiring and","paragraph_id":"para_604"},{"text":"administering the vaccine, Creighton had a duty to follow the","paragraph_id":"para_605"},{"text":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines, and","paragraph_id":"para_606"},{"text":"that those guidelines required that certain disclosures be made","paragraph_id":"para_607"},{"text":"and that a process for obtaining written informed consent be","paragraph_id":"para_608"},{"text":"followed prior to the administration of a vaccine. They further","paragraph_id":"para_609"},{"text":"32 See, Juras v. Aman Collection Service, Inc., 829 F.2d 739 (9th Cir. 1987)","paragraph_id":"para_610"},{"text":"(concluding that university, and not student, is owner of transcript, because","paragraph_id":"para_611"},{"text":"university creates, maintains, and possesses grade record and excludes all","paragraph_id":"para_612"},{"text":"except student from accessing it, and finding, instead, that student had","paragraph_id":"para_613"},{"text":"right only of access rather than ownership); McKee v. Southfield School,","paragraph_id":"para_614"},{"text":"613 So. 2d 659 (La. App. 1993) (finding that child, as third-party benefi-","paragraph_id":"para_615"},{"text":"ciary of contract between parent and school, was not entitled to access his","paragraph_id":"para_616"},{"text":"transcript absent payment of tuition).","paragraph_id":"para_617"},{"text":"33 Doe v. University of Michigan, 78 F. 4th 929 (6th Cir. 2023) (concluding","paragraph_id":"para_618"},{"text":"that student had standing to challenge act of university placing hold on his","paragraph_id":"para_619"},{"text":"account, because hold caused injury to student); In re Kuehn, 563 F.3d 289","paragraph_id":"para_620"},{"text":"(7th Cir. 2009) (concluding that student had state-law right, based on cus-","paragraph_id":"para_621"},{"text":"tom, to receive certified copy of her transcript).","paragraph_id":"para_622"},{"text":"- 494 -","paragraph_id":"para_623"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_624"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_625"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_626"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_627"},{"text":"allege that Creighton failed either to provide the disclosures or","paragraph_id":"para_628"},{"text":"to receive informed consent from the students on campus. In","paragraph_id":"para_629"},{"text":"doing so, the students contend that this amounted to an “unfair","paragraph_id":"para_630"},{"text":"[and] deceptive business practice.” 34 It also seems to be the","paragraph_id":"para_631"},{"text":"contention of the students that Creighton’s duty applied to all","paragraph_id":"para_632"},{"text":"students regardless of whether they received the vaccine, there-","paragraph_id":"para_633"},{"text":"fore indicating that these claims are not exclusive to Hultgren,","paragraph_id":"para_634"},{"text":"the only student-appellant to receive the vaccine.","paragraph_id":"para_635"},{"text":"(i) Negligence","paragraph_id":"para_636"},{"text":"Turning first to the students’ negligence claim, we find that","paragraph_id":"para_637"},{"text":"even assuming the students could allege a state law negligence","paragraph_id":"para_638"},{"text":"claim, it would be preempted by the PREP act.","paragraph_id":"para_639"},{"text":"The PREP act was enacted in 2005 and provides:","paragraph_id":"para_640"},{"text":"[A] covered person shall be immune from suit and","paragraph_id":"para_641"},{"text":"liability under Federal and State law with respect to all","paragraph_id":"para_642"},{"text":"claims for loss caused by, arising out of, relating to, or","paragraph_id":"para_643"},{"text":"resulting from the administration to or the use by an","paragraph_id":"para_644"},{"text":"individual of a covered countermeasure if a declaration","paragraph_id":"para_645"},{"text":"under subsection (b) has been issued with respect to","paragraph_id":"para_646"},{"text":"such countermeasure. 35","paragraph_id":"para_647"},{"text":"In relevant part, the PREP act defines a covered person as","paragraph_id":"para_648"},{"text":"“(iv) a qualified person who prescribed, administered, or dis-","paragraph_id":"para_649"},{"text":"pensed such countermeasure.” 36 A covered countermeasure is","paragraph_id":"para_650"},{"text":"defined as “(A) a qualified pandemic or epidemic product,” 37","paragraph_id":"para_651"},{"text":"meaning a “drug,” “biological product,” or “device” “designed","paragraph_id":"para_652"},{"text":". . . to diagnose, mitigate, prevent, treat, or cure a pandemic","paragraph_id":"para_653"},{"text":"or epidemic” 38 and “(C) a drug . . . , biological product","paragraph_id":"para_654"},{"text":". . . , or device . . . that is authorized for emergency use.” 39","paragraph_id":"para_655"},{"text":"34 Brief for appellants at 26.","paragraph_id":"para_656"},{"text":"35 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(a)(1) (2018 & Supp. V 2023).","paragraph_id":"para_657"},{"text":"36 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(i)(2)(B).","paragraph_id":"para_658"},{"text":"37 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(i)(1).","paragraph_id":"para_659"},{"text":"38 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(i)(7).","paragraph_id":"para_660"},{"text":"39 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(i)(1)(C).","paragraph_id":"para_661"},{"text":"- 495 -","paragraph_id":"para_662"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_663"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_664"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_665"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_666"},{"text":"Finally, “‘loss’ means any type of loss, including . . . (i) death;","paragraph_id":"para_667"},{"text":"(ii) physical, mental, or emotional injury, illness, disability, or","paragraph_id":"para_668"},{"text":"condition; (iii) fear of physical, mental, or emotional injury,","paragraph_id":"para_669"},{"text":"illness, disability, or condition, including any need for medical","paragraph_id":"para_670"},{"text":"monitoring; and (iv) loss of or damage to property, including","paragraph_id":"para_671"},{"text":"business interruption loss.” 40","paragraph_id":"para_672"},{"text":"In lieu of a cause of action, the PREP act created the","paragraph_id":"para_673"},{"text":"“‘Covered Countermeasure Process Fund’” to compensate","paragraph_id":"para_674"},{"text":"individuals who are harmed by the administration or use of","paragraph_id":"para_675"},{"text":"a covered countermeasure. 41 The PREP act does, also, pro-","paragraph_id":"para_676"},{"text":"vide an exclusive cause of action for claims of wrongful","paragraph_id":"para_677"},{"text":"misconduct. 42","paragraph_id":"para_678"},{"text":"Based on the federal statutory language, then, for a party’s","paragraph_id":"para_679"},{"text":"claim to be preempted by the PREP act, it must be that the","paragraph_id":"para_680"},{"text":"offending party is a covered person, who administered a cov-","paragraph_id":"para_681"},{"text":"ered countermeasure, and that the countermeasure caused the","paragraph_id":"para_682"},{"text":"loss to the other party. Neither party disputes that Creighton’s","paragraph_id":"para_683"},{"text":"vaccine policy caused the alleged harm to the students. As","paragraph_id":"para_684"},{"text":"such, we need determine only whether the first two elements","paragraph_id":"para_685"},{"text":"are present.","paragraph_id":"para_686"},{"text":"a. Creighton Is Covered Person Administering","paragraph_id":"para_687"},{"text":"Covered Countermeasure","paragraph_id":"para_688"},{"text":"The students argue that the PREP act is inapplicable","paragraph_id":"para_689"},{"text":"because Creighton is neither a covered entity nor an entity","paragraph_id":"para_690"},{"text":"who administered a covered countermeasure and, therefore,","paragraph_id":"para_691"},{"text":"does not meet the requirements to receive PREP act immu-","paragraph_id":"para_692"},{"text":"nity. As such, before determining whether the students’ claims","paragraph_id":"para_693"},{"text":"are preempted, we assess whether Creighton was a covered","paragraph_id":"para_694"},{"text":"person administering a covered countermeasure. We note that","paragraph_id":"para_695"},{"text":"at the time Creighton imposed its vaccine mandate, a decla-","paragraph_id":"para_696"},{"text":"ration, as contemplated by the act, was in effect, providing","paragraph_id":"para_697"},{"text":"40 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(a)(2)(A).","paragraph_id":"para_698"},{"text":"41 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6e(a) (2018).","paragraph_id":"para_699"},{"text":"42 See, e.g., 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(d)(1).","paragraph_id":"para_700"},{"text":"- 496 -","paragraph_id":"para_701"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_702"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_703"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_704"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_705"},{"text":"immunity to qualified entities such that it would be possible","paragraph_id":"para_706"},{"text":"for Creighton to receive immunity.","paragraph_id":"para_707"},{"text":"We conclude that Creighton is a covered person. The stu-","paragraph_id":"para_708"},{"text":"dents concede as much in their complaint when they say,","paragraph_id":"para_709"},{"text":"“[Creighton] employed physicians materially participating in","paragraph_id":"para_710"},{"text":"supervision or administration of a program with respect to the","paragraph_id":"para_711"},{"text":"administration, dispensing, distribution, provision, or use of","paragraph_id":"para_712"},{"text":"the vaccines on [Creighton’s] campus.” That same allegation","paragraph_id":"para_713"},{"text":"cites to relevant portions of the PREP act. The students attempt","paragraph_id":"para_714"},{"text":"to retract this concession in their brief on appeal, but even","paragraph_id":"para_715"},{"text":"absent a concession, such a conclusion is still supported by the","paragraph_id":"para_716"},{"text":"statutory language.","paragraph_id":"para_717"},{"text":"As explicitly alleged in the complaint, Creighton’s chosen","paragraph_id":"para_718"},{"text":"method of combatting the COVID-19 pandemic was to require","paragraph_id":"para_719"},{"text":"and administer the COVID-19 vaccine on its campus through","paragraph_id":"para_720"},{"text":"physicians specifically authorized to do so. In doing so,","paragraph_id":"para_721"},{"text":"Creighton became a “qualified person who prescribed, admin-","paragraph_id":"para_722"},{"text":"istered, or dispensed such countermeasure.” 43 Additionally,","paragraph_id":"para_723"},{"text":"by administering the vaccine, Creighton was administering","paragraph_id":"para_724"},{"text":"a covered countermeasure. Administering a vaccine intended","paragraph_id":"para_725"},{"text":"to help prevent or slow the spread of an illness, in this case","paragraph_id":"para_726"},{"text":"COVID-19, is plainly within the statutory definition of a","paragraph_id":"para_727"},{"text":"covered countermeasure. This is true regardless of whether","paragraph_id":"para_728"},{"text":"the vaccine was experimental, or FDA approved, as both are","paragraph_id":"para_729"},{"text":"included in the act.","paragraph_id":"para_730"},{"text":"b. Students’ Negligence Claim Is","paragraph_id":"para_731"},{"text":"Preempted by PREP Act","paragraph_id":"para_732"},{"text":"The students also argue that even if Creighton receives some","paragraph_id":"para_733"},{"text":"immunity under the PREP act, the act does not preempt state","paragraph_id":"para_734"},{"text":"law claims for negligence and therefore provides no immunity","paragraph_id":"para_735"},{"text":"against their claims.","paragraph_id":"para_736"},{"text":"Nebraska has not yet had an occasion to comment on the","paragraph_id":"para_737"},{"text":"PREP act or to what extent state law claims may be preempted","paragraph_id":"para_738"},{"text":"43 See 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(i)(2)(B)(iv).","paragraph_id":"para_739"},{"text":"- 497 -","paragraph_id":"para_740"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_741"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_742"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_743"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_744"},{"text":"thereby. The students urge us to rely on federal cases like","paragraph_id":"para_745"},{"text":"Saldana v. Glenhaven Healthcare LLC. 44 There, the court","paragraph_id":"para_746"},{"text":"assessed whether the PREP act was a complete preemption","paragraph_id":"para_747"},{"text":"statute and concluded that it was not. 45 Specifically, the court","paragraph_id":"para_748"},{"text":"determined that the act did not create an exclusive cause of","paragraph_id":"para_749"},{"text":"action for state law claims. 46 Instead, the court noted that","paragraph_id":"para_750"},{"text":"the act created a cause of action only for willful misconduct,","paragraph_id":"para_751"},{"text":"meaning only state law claims for willful misconduct were","paragraph_id":"para_752"},{"text":"preempted. 47 Therefore, the court concluded that there was","paragraph_id":"para_753"},{"text":"no basis for federal question jurisdiction, since the state law","paragraph_id":"para_754"},{"text":"claim remained. 48 The students cite other federal cases to the","paragraph_id":"para_755"},{"text":"same effect. 49","paragraph_id":"para_756"},{"text":"We do not find Saldana to be persuasive. Saldana, as with","paragraph_id":"para_757"},{"text":"many of the other cited cases, is procedurally distinct from the","paragraph_id":"para_758"},{"text":"matter before this court. The underlying question in those cases","paragraph_id":"para_759"},{"text":"was whether removal from state court to federal court was","paragraph_id":"para_760"},{"text":"appropriate when, based on the face of the complaint, the claim","paragraph_id":"para_761"},{"text":"was grounded in state law and presented no federal question.","paragraph_id":"para_762"},{"text":"That is not the issue before us.","paragraph_id":"para_763"},{"text":"A more procedurally analogous, and more persuasive, case","paragraph_id":"para_764"},{"text":"is Happel v. Guilford Cnty. Bd. of Educ., 50 decided by the","paragraph_id":"para_765"},{"text":"North Carolina Supreme Court. There, on a motion to dis-","paragraph_id":"para_766"},{"text":"miss, the court considered whether a litigant’s state constitu-","paragraph_id":"para_767"},{"text":"tional and tort-based claims were preempted by the PREP act","paragraph_id":"para_768"},{"text":"44 Saldana v. Glenhaven Healthcare LLC, 27 F.4th 679 (9th Cir. 2022).","paragraph_id":"para_769"},{"text":"45 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_770"},{"text":"46 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_771"},{"text":"47 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_772"},{"text":"48 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_773"},{"text":"49 See, Walsh v. SSC Westchester Operating Co. LLC, 592 F. Supp. 3d 737","paragraph_id":"para_774"},{"text":"(N.D. Ill. 2022); Yarnell v. Clinton No. 1, Inc., 591 F. Supp. 3d 432 (W.D.","paragraph_id":"para_775"},{"text":"Mo. 2022).","paragraph_id":"para_776"},{"text":"50 Happel v. Guilford Cnty. Bd. of Educ., 387 N.C. 186, 913 S.E.2d 174","paragraph_id":"para_777"},{"text":"(2025).","paragraph_id":"para_778"},{"text":"- 498 -","paragraph_id":"para_779"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_780"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_781"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_782"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_783"},{"text":"and concluded that a battery claim fell squarely within the act","paragraph_id":"para_784"},{"text":"and, therefore, was preempted by the act. 51","paragraph_id":"para_785"},{"text":"The North Carolina high court concluded that Congress did","paragraph_id":"para_786"},{"text":"not preempt state constitutional claims, because to do so would","paragraph_id":"para_787"},{"text":"eliminate any recourse for nonwillful constitutional violations","paragraph_id":"para_788"},{"text":"except through the Covered Countermeasure Process Fund. 52","paragraph_id":"para_789"},{"text":"Such a situation, the court reasoned, would, effectively, incen-","paragraph_id":"para_790"},{"text":"tivize unconstitutional behavior by eliminating enforcement","paragraph_id":"para_791"},{"text":"mechanisms. 53 Additionally, in its statutory analysis, the court","paragraph_id":"para_792"},{"text":"focused 54 on the fact that the PREP act specifies that any","paragraph_id":"para_793"},{"text":"“claims for loss” are preempted. 55 Based on the plain language","paragraph_id":"para_794"},{"text":"of the PREP act’s definition of “loss,” which is defined by four","paragraph_id":"para_795"},{"text":"examples of various types of harm, 56 the court concluded that","paragraph_id":"para_796"},{"text":"those sorts of harms, or losses, could occur only in the context","paragraph_id":"para_797"},{"text":"of a tort. 57 As such, it held that the plain language of the pro-","paragraph_id":"para_798"},{"text":"vision preempted state law tort-based claims. 58 Accordingly,","paragraph_id":"para_799"},{"text":"noting that constitutional loss is substantially different from","paragraph_id":"para_800"},{"text":"tort loss, the court held that only the litigant’s battery claim","paragraph_id":"para_801"},{"text":"was preempted. 59","paragraph_id":"para_802"},{"text":"In Parker v. County Public Health Dept., 60 a New York","paragraph_id":"para_803"},{"text":"appellate court reached the same conclusion, deciding","paragraph_id":"para_804"},{"text":"that a claim based on a lack of consent was a “‘claim for","paragraph_id":"para_805"},{"text":"loss’” as contemplated by the PREP act. In arriving at this","paragraph_id":"para_806"},{"text":"51 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_807"},{"text":"52 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_808"},{"text":"53 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_809"},{"text":"54 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_810"},{"text":"55 See 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(a)(1).","paragraph_id":"para_811"},{"text":"56 See 42 U.S.C. § 247d-6d(a)(2)(A).","paragraph_id":"para_812"},{"text":"57 Happel v. Guilford Cnty. Bd. of Educ., supra note 50.","paragraph_id":"para_813"},{"text":"58 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_814"},{"text":"59 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_815"},{"text":"60 Parker v. County Public Health Dept., 102 A.D.3d 140, 143, 954 N.Y.S.2d","paragraph_id":"para_816"},{"text":"259, 262 (2012).","paragraph_id":"para_817"},{"text":"- 499 -","paragraph_id":"para_818"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_819"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_820"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_821"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_822"},{"text":"conclusion, the court also reasoned that “‘claim[s] for loss’”","paragraph_id":"para_823"},{"text":"are typically vindicated through an award of damages any-","paragraph_id":"para_824"},{"text":"way, making the Covered Countermeasures Process Fund an","paragraph_id":"para_825"},{"text":"appropriate remedy. 61","paragraph_id":"para_826"},{"text":"We find Happel and Parker to be persuasive, and we rely","paragraph_id":"para_827"},{"text":"on the reasoning therein. In doing so, we conclude that the","paragraph_id":"para_828"},{"text":"students’ claims, both Hultgren’s and those of the other stu-","paragraph_id":"para_829"},{"text":"dents, are, in fact, preempted by the PREP act. As already","paragraph_id":"para_830"},{"text":"mentioned, the students do not allege any constitutional claims","paragraph_id":"para_831"},{"text":"and, instead, allege claims for negligence based on a lack of","paragraph_id":"para_832"},{"text":"disclosures and failure to receive informed consent. A claim for","paragraph_id":"para_833"},{"text":"negligence, as explained in Happel and Parker, is a tort claim","paragraph_id":"para_834"},{"text":"and, therefore, is a claim for loss based on the plain language","paragraph_id":"para_835"},{"text":"of the statute. In fact, just as in Parker, the students’ negli-","paragraph_id":"para_836"},{"text":"gence claims are based, at least in part, on a lack of consent. To","paragraph_id":"para_837"},{"text":"the extent the students seek monetary damages for Creighton’s","paragraph_id":"para_838"},{"text":"alleged negligence, Congress’ statutory remedy, the Covered","paragraph_id":"para_839"},{"text":"Countermeasure Process Fund, provides similar recourse and","paragraph_id":"para_840"},{"text":"was designed specifically for situations such as this. Therefore,","paragraph_id":"para_841"},{"text":"we conclude that the district court did not err in concluding","paragraph_id":"para_842"},{"text":"that none of the students could state a claim for negligence.","paragraph_id":"para_843"},{"text":"(ii) Students Cannot State Claim","paragraph_id":"para_844"},{"text":"for Violation of NCPA","paragraph_id":"para_845"},{"text":"Next, we turn to the students’ claim for violations of","paragraph_id":"para_846"},{"text":"the NCPA. As mentioned above, the students argue that","paragraph_id":"para_847"},{"text":"Creighton’s lack of disclosures and failure to obtain informed","paragraph_id":"para_848"},{"text":"consent amounted to “unfair or deceptive business practices,”","paragraph_id":"para_849"},{"text":"because students were not made fully aware of the type, risks,","paragraph_id":"para_850"},{"text":"and benefits of receiving the vaccine. 62 Creighton counters","paragraph_id":"para_851"},{"text":"that the situation at issue is not governed by the NCPA and","paragraph_id":"para_852"},{"text":"that the students’ interpretation of the statutory language is","paragraph_id":"para_853"},{"text":"overly broad.","paragraph_id":"para_854"},{"text":"61 Id.","paragraph_id":"para_855"},{"text":"62 Brief for appellants at 25.","paragraph_id":"para_856"},{"text":"- 500 -","paragraph_id":"para_857"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_858"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_859"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_860"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_861"},{"text":"[15,16] The NCPA was intended to be an antitrust measure","paragraph_id":"para_862"},{"text":"to protect Nebraska consumers from monopolies and price-","paragraph_id":"para_863"},{"text":"fixing conspiracies. 63 The purpose of the NCPA is to provide","paragraph_id":"para_864"},{"text":"consumers with protection against unlawful practices in the","paragraph_id":"para_865"},{"text":"conduct of any trade or commerce which directly affects","paragraph_id":"para_866"},{"text":"the people of Nebraska. 64","paragraph_id":"para_867"},{"text":"In making their argument, the students specifically rely on","paragraph_id":"para_868"},{"text":"§ 59-1602, which provides that “[u]nfair methods of competi-","paragraph_id":"para_869"},{"text":"tion and unfair or deceptive acts or practices in the conduct of","paragraph_id":"para_870"},{"text":"any trade or commerce shall be unlawful.” Section 59-1601","paragraph_id":"para_871"},{"text":"provides that “[t]rade and commerce shall mean the sale of","paragraph_id":"para_872"},{"text":"assets or services and any commerce directly or indirectly","paragraph_id":"para_873"},{"text":"affecting the people of the State of Nebraska.” The students","paragraph_id":"para_874"},{"text":"contend that Creighton’s provision of educational services","paragraph_id":"para_875"},{"text":"would fall within this definition.","paragraph_id":"para_876"},{"text":"In this matter, any violations of the NCPA were causally","paragraph_id":"para_877"},{"text":"related to Creighton’s administration of a covered countermea-","paragraph_id":"para_878"},{"text":"sure. As such, the PREP act preempts the students’ cause of","paragraph_id":"para_879"},{"text":"action concerning the NCPA and the district court did not err","paragraph_id":"para_880"},{"text":"in dismissing the claim. 65","paragraph_id":"para_881"},{"text":"3. District Court Did Not Err in Refusing","paragraph_id":"para_882"},{"text":"to Allow Motion to Amend","paragraph_id":"para_883"},{"text":"[17,18] The students also assign and argue that the district","paragraph_id":"para_884"},{"text":"court erred in denying their motion to amend their complaint.","paragraph_id":"para_885"},{"text":"Generally, where leave to amend is sought before discovery","paragraph_id":"para_886"},{"text":"is complete and before a motion for summary judgment has","paragraph_id":"para_887"},{"text":"been filed, leave to amend should be denied as futile only","paragraph_id":"para_888"},{"text":"if the proposed amendment cannot withstand a motion to","paragraph_id":"para_889"},{"text":"63 Salem Grain Co. v. Consolidated Grain & Barge Co., 297 Neb. 682, 900","paragraph_id":"para_890"},{"text":"N.W.2d 909 (2017).","paragraph_id":"para_891"},{"text":"64 Arthur v. Microsoft Corp., 267 Neb. 586, 676 N.W.2d 29 (2004).","paragraph_id":"para_892"},{"text":"65 See M.T. v. Walmart Stores, Inc., 63 Kan. App. 2d 401, 528 P.3d 1067","paragraph_id":"para_893"},{"text":"(2023) (review denied on August 25, 2023).","paragraph_id":"para_894"},{"text":"- 501 -","paragraph_id":"para_895"},{"text":"Nebraska Supreme Court Advance Sheets","paragraph_id":"para_896"},{"text":"320 Nebraska Reports","paragraph_id":"para_897"},{"text":"RAMAEKERS v. CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY","paragraph_id":"para_898"},{"text":"Cite as 320 Neb. 478","paragraph_id":"para_899"},{"text":"dismiss under § 6-1112(b)(6). 66 However, leave to amend","paragraph_id":"para_900"},{"text":"should not be granted when it is clear that the defect cannot","paragraph_id":"para_901"},{"text":"be cured by amendment. 67","paragraph_id":"para_902"},{"text":"Based on our analysis above, we determine that the stu-","paragraph_id":"para_903"},{"text":"dents’ claims as to negligence and violation of the NCPA","paragraph_id":"para_904"},{"text":"are unable to be remedied through an amendment because","paragraph_id":"para_905"},{"text":"Creighton is a covered person administering a covered coun-","paragraph_id":"para_906"},{"text":"termeasure and these claims cannot be maintained against","paragraph_id":"para_907"},{"text":"them. As a result, we conclude that the district court did not","paragraph_id":"para_908"},{"text":"abuse its discretion in declining the students’ request to file an","paragraph_id":"para_909"},{"text":"amended complaint.","paragraph_id":"para_910"},{"text":"VI. CONCLUSION","paragraph_id":"para_911"},{"text":"For the reasons outlined above, we conclude that the stu-","paragraph_id":"para_912"},{"text":"dents have sufficiently stated a claim for breach of an implied","paragraph_id":"para_913"},{"text":"contract and conversion. However, as to the students’ negli-","paragraph_id":"para_914"},{"text":"gence and NCPA claims, we conclude that they have failed","paragraph_id":"para_915"},{"text":"to state a claim, and that any amendment to such claims","paragraph_id":"para_916"},{"text":"would be futile because the defects in the claims cannot be","paragraph_id":"para_917"},{"text":"remedied. 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