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PUBLICATION","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"CINDY CODONI; MICHELLE","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"GEER; HORACE CATHCART;","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"AMY FRANCE; TAMARA","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"CHAKOS,","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"Plaintiffs - Appellees,","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"v.","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"PORT OF SEATTLE; ALASKA AIR","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"GROUP, INC.; DELTA AIR LINES,","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"INC.,","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"Defendants - Appellants.","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"No. 25-2830","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"D.C. No.","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"2:23-cv-00795-","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"JNW","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"OPINION","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"Appeal from the United States District Court","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"for the Western District of Washington","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"Jamal N. Whitehead, District Judge, Presiding","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"Argued and Submitted March 5, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"Seattle, Washington","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"Filed September 23, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"Before: M. Margaret McKeown, Richard A. Paez, and","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"Daniel A. Bress, Circuit Judges.","paragraph_id":"para_26"},{"text":"Opinion by Judge Paez","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"2 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"SUMMARY*","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"Collateral Attack Doctrine / Clean Air Act Preemption","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"The panel reversed the district court’s order denying","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"Defendants’ motion to dismiss Plaintiffs’ suit concerning","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"clean up and payment for pollution from overhead flight","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"paths at the Seattle-Tacoma Airport.","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"Plaintiffs, who live beneath the takeoff and landing paths","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"at the Seattle-Tacoma Airport, sued Alaska Airlines, Delta","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"Airlines, and the Port of Seattle, alleging state tort and","paragraph_id":"para_37"},{"text":"constitutional claims.","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"The panel held that the district court properly exercised","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"jurisdiction over Plaintiffs’ claims. Delta argued that the","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"complaint was an improper collateral attack designed to","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"circumvent the exclusive judicial review of certain agency","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"orders in the courts of appeals. The panel held that the","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"collateral attack doctrine, which provides that the district","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"court lacks jurisdiction to hear claims that are inescapably","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"intertwined with a review of the procedures and merits of a","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"prior agency order, was not applicable to this","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"case. Defendants did not and could not identify the specific","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"agency orders that were necessarily implicated by Plaintiffs’","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"complaint.","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"The panel held that Plaintiffs’ state law claims were","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"expressly preempted by Section 233 of the Clean Air Act, 42","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"U.S.C. § 7573, which provides that “[n]o State or political","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"subdivision thereof may adopt or attempt to enforce any","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"* This summary constitutes no part of the opinion of the court. It has","paragraph_id":"para_55"},{"text":"been prepared by court staff for the convenience of the reader.","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 3","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"standard respecting emissions of any air pollutant from any","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"aircraft or engine thereof unless such standard is identical to","paragraph_id":"para_59"},{"text":"a standard applicable to such aircraft under this","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"part.” Plaintiffs’ complaint took aim at emissions that sit at","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"the core of the Act—particulate matter that concentrates in","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"the ambient air. Although Section 233 allows states to","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"enforce standards that are identical to the Environmental","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"Protection Agency’s aircraft emission standards, the","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"possibility of enforcing federal standards via state law claims","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"does not save Plaintiffs’ complaint because Plaintiffs’","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"complaint does not contain any allegation that Defendants","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"are violating federal law.","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"Accordingly, the panel reversed the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"denial of Defendants’ motion to dismiss, and remanded the","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"case for further proceedings.","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"COUNSEL","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"Steve W. Berman (argued), Martin D. McLean, and Shayne","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"C. Stevenson, Hagens Berman Sobol Shapiro LLP, Seattle,","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"Washington; Abigail D. Pershing, Hagens Berman Sobol","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"Shapiro LLP, Pasadena, California; Nathan Emmons,","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"Hagens Berman Sobol Shapiro LLP, Chicago, Illinois; for","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"Plaintiffs-Appellees.","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"Amir C. Tayrani (argued), Joseph D. Edmonds, Jessica L.","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"Wagner, Stacie B. Fletcher, and Daniel W. Nelson, Gibson","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"Dunn & Crutcher LLP, Washington, D.C.; Shay Dvoretzky","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"(argued), John H. Beisner, and Parker A. Rider-Longmaid,","paragraph_id":"para_83"},{"text":"Skadden Arps Slate Meagher & Flom LLP, Washington,","paragraph_id":"para_84"},{"text":"D.C.; Sarah Leitner, Skadden Arps Slate Meagher & Flom","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"LLP, New York, New York; Raza Rasheed, Skadden Arps","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"4 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"Slate Meagher & Flom LLP, Los Angeles, California; Beth","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"S. Ginsberg, Maren R. Norton, Rita V. Latsinova, and","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"Vanessa S. Power, Stoel Rives LLP, Seattle, Washington;","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"David L. Balser, Madison H. Kitchens, Paul J. Watford,","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"Kelly L. Perigoe, Arwen R. Johnson, and David Willingham,","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"King & Spalding LLP, Atlanta, Georgia; Malaika M. Eaton","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"and Gregory J. Hollon, McNaul Ebel Nawrot & Helgren","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"PLLC, Seattle, Washington; for Defendants-Appellants.","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"David L. Peters (argued) and Michael S. Raab, Attorneys,","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"Appellate Staff, Civil Division; Matthew R. Oakes,","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"Attorney, Law and Policy Section Environment and Natural","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"Resources Division; Robert N. Stander, Deputy Assistant","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"Attorney General; Adam R.F. Gustafson, Acting Assistant","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"Attorney General; Brett A. Shumate, Assistant Attorney","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"General; United States Department of Justice, Washington,","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"D.C.; Rosemary H. Kaban, Attorney; Nathaniel Tisa,","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"Principal Deputy General Counsel, Environmental","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.; Jonathan W. Cross,","paragraph_id":"para_105"},{"text":"Attorney; William McKenna, Chief Counsel; Federal","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C.; Samuel G.","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"Fuller, Attorney; Charles E. Enloe, Assistant General","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"Counsel; Gregory D. Cote, Acting General Counsel;","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.; for","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"Amicus Curiae United States of America.","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"J. Stephen Barrick, Hicks Thomas LLP, Houston, Texas;","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"Jennifer B. Dickey and Andrew R. Varcoe, United States","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"Chamber Litigation Center, Washington, D.C.; for Amicus","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"Curiae The Chamber of Commerce of the United States of","paragraph_id":"para_115"},{"text":"America.","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"Tim J. Filer, Adrian U. Winder, and Devra R. Cohen, Foster","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"Garvey PC, Seattle, Washington, for Amicus Curiae","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"Airports Council International – North America.","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 5","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"Anton Metlitsky and Bruce P. Crawford, O'Melveny &","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"Myers LLP, New York, New York; Patricia N. Vercelli and","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"Riva Parker, Airlines for America, Washington, D.C.; for","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"Amicus Curiae Airlines for America.","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"OPINION","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"PAEZ, Circuit Judge:","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"Plaintiffs Cindy Codoni, Michelle Geer, Horace","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"Cathcart, Amy France, and Tamara Chakos live underneath","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"the takeoff and landing paths at the Seattle-Tacoma Airport.","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"On behalf of themselves and their neighbors, they sued","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"Alaska Airlines, Delta Airlines, and the Port of Seattle to","paragraph_id":"para_131"},{"text":"clean up and pay for pollution from the flights overhead,","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"advancing state tort and constitutional claims. Defendants","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"moved to dismiss, and the district court denied the motion,","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"but certified its order for interlocutory review.","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"While this case presents many diverse legal theories, we","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"resolve this appeal by answering only two questions today.","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"First, we hold that the district court properly exercised","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"jurisdiction over Plaintiffs’ claims. Delta Airlines argues","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"that the complaint is an improper collateral attack designed","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"to circumvent the exclusive judicial review of certain agency","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"orders in the courts of appeals. But the collateral attack","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"doctrine is not applicable to this case, as Defendants do not","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"and cannot identify the specific agency orders that are","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"necessarily implicated by Plaintiffs’ complaint.","paragraph_id":"para_145"},{"text":"Second, we hold that Plaintiffs’ claims are expressly","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"preempted by Section 233 of the Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"§ 7573. The complaint takes aim at emissions that sit at the","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"6 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"core of the Act—particulate matter that concentrates in the","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"ambient air. We therefore reverse the district court’s denial","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"of the motion to dismiss.","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"I. Background","paragraph_id":"para_153"},{"text":"A. Facts","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"Plaintiffs are five individuals who reside within a five-","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"mile radius of the Seattle Tacoma Airport (“Sea-Tac”),","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"which the complaint refers to as the “Contamination Zone.”","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"Defendants are two commercial airlines—Alaska Air Group","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"(“Alaska”) and Delta Airlines, Inc. (“Delta”) (collectively,","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"the “Airlines”)—and the Port of Seattle (“Port”), a special-","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"purpose municipal corporation that owns and operates Sea-","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"Tac. Alaska and Delta together operate about 80% of the","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"flights into and out of Sea-Tac.","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"We recount the well-pleaded allegations in the","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"complaint, which we must accept as true. Thomas v. County","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"of Humboldt, 124 F.4th 1179, 1186 (9th Cir. 2024). Alaska","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"and Delta “rain” pollutants on the Contamination Zone as","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"their planes take off and land, and the Port permits this","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":"pollution to occur. Plaintiffs point to two sources of","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"pollution: aircraft engine exhaust and aircraft fuselages (that","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"is, the bodies of aircraft). Aircraft exhaust generates","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"“particulate matter, dangerous gases (such as carbon","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur oxide), hazardous air","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"pollutants (such as formaldehyde, acrolein, 1,3-butadiene,","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"naphthalene, benzene, acetaldehyde, and ethylbenzene), and","paragraph_id":"para_175"},{"text":"some heavy metals (such as barium and, particularly in","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"piston-engined aircraft, arsenic and lead).” As for the","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"fuselages, the repeated expansion and contraction of","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"fuselages on takeoff and landing “causes particulate","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"matter—including aluminum, barium, cadmium, copper,","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 7","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"lead, magnesium, silver, and zinc—to flake off the aircraft’s","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"body and to pollute the surrounding environment.”","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"Most such pollutants are dispersed by wind while","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"airplanes fly, which “minimizes the buildup of pollutants in","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"any one location.” “However, when planes fly below 3,000","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"feet, there is not enough time for the wind to fully disperse","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"the pollutants. Pollutants released below this altitude are","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"sucked downwind and accumulate in local communities.”","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"Plaintiffs cite a 2019 study from the University of","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"Washington, which found that communities directly below","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"the takeoff and landing paths at Sea-Tac experience","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"significantly higher concentrations of particulate matter air","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"pollution than neighboring communities, with the highest","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"concentrations occurring in the Contamination Zone. A","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"follow-up study in 2021 found that this pollution also","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"infiltrates classrooms in the Contamination Zone. And","paragraph_id":"para_197"},{"text":"studies of airports from around the world find that soil near","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"an airport tends to be significantly contaminated with heavy","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"metals.","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"Plaintiffs allege that Defendants learned about each","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"Contamination Zone study after it was published and held","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"specific meetings to discuss the studies in 2021.","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"Nonetheless, Defendants have not acted to prevent or clean","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"up further pollution.","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"Plaintiffs allege that the pollution of air and soil in the","paragraph_id":"para_206"},{"text":"Contamination Zone harms the health and property of those","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"who call it home. They cite a comparative study that found","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"that individuals in the Contamination Zone are more likely","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"to be hospitalized for respiratory conditions, to be born too","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"early and with low birth weights, to live shorter lives, and to","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"die from cancer and respiratory disease, as well as all other","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"leading causes of death. And because pollution negatively","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"8 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"affects home values, the ongoing pollution depreciates the","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"value of Plaintiffs’ property. These burdens do not fall","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"equally across the demographics of King County. Rather,","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"plaintiffs maintain that this concentration of health and","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"economic harm falls disproportionately on King County’s","paragraph_id":"para_219"},{"text":"impoverished, minority, and immigrant communities.","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"B. Procedure","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"On behalf of themselves and all other residents and","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"homeowners of the Contamination Zone, Plaintiffs sued the","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"Airlines and the Port to stop, remediate, and compensate for","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"this pollution. Plaintiffs first sued in King County Superior","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"Court and Defendants removed the action to federal court.","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"The class action complaint proposes two classes: the","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"Resident Class, defined by residency in the Contamination","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"Zone, and the Homeowner and Renter Class, defined by","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"relationship to real property in the Contamination Zone. The","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"proposed classes include over 300,000 individuals.","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"Plaintiffs advance six claims. The Resident Class alleges","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"1) negligence, against all Defendants, and 2) battery, against","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"the Airlines. The Homeowner and Renter Class alleges","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"3) negligence, 4) continuing intentional trespass","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"(“trespass”), and 5) public nuisance against all Defendants,","paragraph_id":"para_236"},{"text":"as well as 6) inverse condemnation1 against the Port, in the","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"alternative to the battery, negligence, and trespass claims.","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"The essence of each claim is that Defendants cause","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"pollutants to “rain down” on Plaintiffs’ persons and property","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"and fail to remediate that pollution. Plaintiffs pray for","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"declaratory relief, injunctive relief (including for the","paragraph_id":"para_242"},{"text":"1 Inverse condemnation is a takings claim brought under the Washington","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"Constitution to “recover the value of property which has been","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"appropriated in fact, but with no formal exercise of the power of eminent","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"domain.” Dickgieser v. Washington, 105 P.3d 26, 28 (Wash. 2005).","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 9","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"remediation of property and a medical monitoring program),","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"damages for the loss of use and enjoyment of property, and","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"other appropriate relief.","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"The Airlines and Port all moved to dismiss for lack of","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"subject matter jurisdiction and for failure to state a claim.","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"The district court denied the motions. Defendants first","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"argued that Plaintiffs’ claims are improper collateral attacks","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"on federal agency actions subject to two exclusive judicial","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"review provisions: 49 U.S.C. § 46110 (Federal Aviation","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"Administration (“FAA”), among other agencies) and 42","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"U.S.C. § 7607(b)(1) (Environmental Protection Agency","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"(“EPA”)). The district court rejected this argument, noting","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"that Plaintiffs’ complaint did not expressly challenge or cite","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"any agency order, and that Defendants failed to explain how","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"Plaintiffs’ claims implicated any specific orders reviewable","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"under either statute.","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"Defendants also argued that Plaintiffs’ claims were","paragraph_id":"para_264"},{"text":"expressly preempted by a provision of the Airline","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"Deregulation Act, 49 U.S.C. § 41713(b)(1), and Section 233","paragraph_id":"para_266"},{"text":"of the Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7573 (“Section 233”). The","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"district court rejected the Airline Deregulation Act defense","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"because it determined that Plaintiffs’ theories of liability do","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"not necessarily turn on the Airlines’ choices in preempted","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"areas, such as their routes and services, and because it was","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"too early to know whether Plaintiffs’ claims would bind the","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"Airlines to any particular price, route, or service. And the","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"district court rejected the Section 233 preemption defense","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"based on our decision in California v. Navy, 624 F.2d 885","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"(9th Cir. 1980). Under Navy, the district court held that","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"Plaintiffs’ claims would only be preempted by Section 233","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"if they “necessitate aircraft alterations as a factual matter.”","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"The district court further noted that Section 233 allows states","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"to enforce standards that are identical to federal standards.","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"10 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"Whether Plaintiffs’ claims would require aircraft alterations","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"and whether Defendants are in compliance with the relevant","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"federal standards are both factual questions, and the district","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"court declined to resolve those questions in Defendants’","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"favor on their motion to dismiss.","paragraph_id":"para_286"},{"text":"Defendants also raised implied preemption defenses,","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"arguing that Congress fully occupied the fields of “airspace","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"management and flight paths, aviation safety, aircraft engine","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"and body design, and emissions.” The district court rejected","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"Defendants’ proposed field definitions and instead specified","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"the field of “airplane pollution and its effects on people and","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"property.” The district court concluded that this field was","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"not fully occupied because Navy’s preemption test implied","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"that some state airplane pollution standards would not be","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"preempted. Finally, the district court rejected Defendants’","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"conflict preemption defense, based on its prior holdings as","paragraph_id":"para_297"},{"text":"to express and field preemption.","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"On Defendants’ joint motion, the district court certified","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"its order denying the motion to dismiss for interlocutory","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"review under 28 U.S.C. § 1292(b). Defendants then","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"petitioned this court for interlocutory review, which a","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"motions panel granted.","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"II. Jurisdiction and Standard of Review","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"We have jurisdiction to review a district court’s denial of","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"a motion to dismiss certified for interlocutory review under","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"28 U.S.C. § 1292(b). Bennett v. United States, 44 F.4th 929,","paragraph_id":"para_307"},{"text":"933 (9th Cir. 2022). For interlocutory review to be proper,","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"the order must present “a controlling question of law as to","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"which there is substantial ground for difference of opinion,”","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"and it must be the case that “an immediate appeal from the","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"order may materially advance the ultimate termination of the","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"litigation.” 28 U.S.C § 1292(b).","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 11","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"We have an independent duty to confirm that","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"interlocutory review is appropriate under this standard.","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"Sterling v. Feek, 150 F.4th 1235, 1247 (9th Cir. 2025). The","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"standard is met here. The questions of law that Defendants","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"advance under the collateral attack doctrine are both novel","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"and important, and Section 233 of the Clean Air Act is","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"infrequently interpreted.","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"We review de novo the district court’s denial of the","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"motion to dismiss. Bennett, 44 F.4th at 933. We construe","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"the facts in the light most favorable to the nonmovants and","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"draw all reasonable inferences in their favor. Thomas, 124","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"F.4th at 1186.","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"“Preemption is an affirmative defense, so the defendant","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"bears the burden of pleading and supporting its preemption","paragraph_id":"para_328"},{"text":"argument.” Cohen v. ConAgra Brands, Inc., 16 F.4th 1283,","paragraph_id":"para_329"},{"text":"1289 (9th Cir. 2021). “[T]he assertion of an affirmative","paragraph_id":"para_330"},{"text":"defense may be considered properly on a motion to dismiss","paragraph_id":"para_331"},{"text":"where the ‘allegations in the complaint suffice to establish’","paragraph_id":"para_332"},{"text":"the defense.” Sams v. Yahoo! Inc., 713 F.3d 1175, 1179 (9th","paragraph_id":"para_333"},{"text":"Cir. 2013) (quoting Jones v. Bock, 549 U.S. 199, 215","paragraph_id":"para_334"},{"text":"(2007)).","paragraph_id":"para_335"},{"text":"III. Discussion","paragraph_id":"para_336"},{"text":"A. Subject Matter Jurisdiction","paragraph_id":"para_337"},{"text":"We first consider whether the district court had subject","paragraph_id":"para_338"},{"text":"matter jurisdiction to adjudicate Plaintiffs’ claims.","paragraph_id":"para_339"},{"text":"Under 42 U.S.C. § 7607(b)(1), “[a] petition for review of","paragraph_id":"para_340"},{"text":"action of the [EPA] Administrator in promulgating . . . any","paragraph_id":"para_341"},{"text":"standard under section 7571 of this title . . . may be filed","paragraph_id":"para_342"},{"text":"only in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of","paragraph_id":"para_343"},{"text":"Columbia.” That cross-referenced section, 42 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_344"},{"text":"§ 7571(a)(2)(A), provides for emission standards for","paragraph_id":"para_345"},{"text":"12 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_346"},{"text":"“aircraft engines.” And under 49 U.S.C. § 46110(c), the","paragraph_id":"para_347"},{"text":"federal courts of appeals have “exclusive jurisdiction to","paragraph_id":"para_348"},{"text":"affirm, amend, modify, or set aside” an “order” of the FAA","paragraph_id":"para_349"},{"text":"on certain subjects.2 An “order” is any “final agency action”","paragraph_id":"para_350"},{"text":"of an aviation agency. Magassa v. Mayorkas, 52 F.4th 1156,","paragraph_id":"para_351"},{"text":"1165 (9th Cir. 2022). The exclusive judicial review","paragraph_id":"para_352"},{"text":"provisions of these two statutes are not identical, but they do","paragraph_id":"para_353"},{"text":"not differ in any material respect for our purposes. We","paragraph_id":"para_354"},{"text":"therefore treat the two statutes together here, while","paragraph_id":"para_355"},{"text":"acknowledging that their differences may be pertinent in","paragraph_id":"para_356"},{"text":"future cases.","paragraph_id":"para_357"},{"text":"When, under these statutes, a claim can be heard in the","paragraph_id":"para_358"},{"text":"courts of appeals, the district court lacks jurisdiction to hear","paragraph_id":"para_359"},{"text":"that claim. See Cal. Dump Truck Owners Ass’n v. Nichols,","paragraph_id":"para_360"},{"text":"784 F.3d 500, 504–05, 508 (9th Cir. 2015); Magassa, 52","paragraph_id":"para_361"},{"text":"F.4th at 1164. That is, the district court’s jurisdiction is","paragraph_id":"para_362"},{"text":"“preempted” by the exclusive judicial review provision.","paragraph_id":"para_363"},{"text":"Latif v. Holder, 686 F.3d 1122, 1127 (9th Cir. 2012) (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_364"},{"text":"Americopters, LLC v. FAA, 441 F.3d 726, 736 (9th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_365"},{"text":"2006)). But these provisions do not preempt the district","paragraph_id":"para_366"},{"text":"court’s jurisdiction in “every possible dispute” involving the","paragraph_id":"para_367"},{"text":"listed agencies. Americopters, 441 F.3d at 735. Rather, for","paragraph_id":"para_368"},{"text":"a claim to trigger these statutes, it generally must implicate","paragraph_id":"para_369"},{"text":"the agencies, actions, and remedies specified in each statute.","paragraph_id":"para_370"},{"text":"See Magassa, 52 F.4th at 1165. When § 7607 and § 46110","paragraph_id":"para_371"},{"text":"do not “explicitly” allow the courts of appeals to hear a","paragraph_id":"para_372"},{"text":"claim, the district court retains jurisdiction. Latif, 686 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_373"},{"text":"at 1128 (quoting Americopters, 441 F.3d at 735); see also","paragraph_id":"para_374"},{"text":"2 The order must pertain to the FAA Administrator’s “aviation duties and","paragraph_id":"para_375"},{"text":"powers.” 49 U.S.C. § 46110(a). 49 U.S.C. § 46110 applies to other","paragraph_id":"para_376"},{"text":"agencies as well, but for the purposes of this opinion, we consider only","paragraph_id":"para_377"},{"text":"its application to the FAA.","paragraph_id":"para_378"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 13","paragraph_id":"para_379"},{"text":"EPA v. Calumet Shreveport Refining, L.L.C., 145 S. Ct.","paragraph_id":"para_380"},{"text":"1735, 1743 (2025).","paragraph_id":"para_381"},{"text":"In limited circumstances, however, the district court may","paragraph_id":"para_382"},{"text":"also lack jurisdiction over claims that fall outside of these","paragraph_id":"para_383"},{"text":"judicial review provisions. Under the collateral attack","paragraph_id":"para_384"},{"text":"doctrine, the district court lacks jurisdiction to hear claims","paragraph_id":"para_385"},{"text":"that are “inescapably intertwined with a review of the","paragraph_id":"para_386"},{"text":"procedures and merits” of a prior agency order.","paragraph_id":"para_387"},{"text":"Americopters, 441 F.3d at 736 (quoting Crist v. Leippe, 138","paragraph_id":"para_388"},{"text":"F.3d 801, 803 (9th Cir. 1998)); see also Nichols, 784 F.3d at","paragraph_id":"para_389"},{"text":"506 (applying 42 U.S.C. § 7607(b)(1) to claims that","paragraph_id":"para_390"},{"text":"“effectively, if not facially, challenged an EPA final action”).","paragraph_id":"para_391"},{"text":"The purpose of the doctrine is to prevent litigants from using","paragraph_id":"para_392"},{"text":"a district court proceeding to raise a claim that is a “thinly","paragraph_id":"para_393"},{"text":"disguised attempt at an end-run around the jurisdictional","paragraph_id":"para_394"},{"text":"limitation imposed by” the exclusive review provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_395"},{"text":"Mace v. Skinner, 34 F.3d 854, 860 (9th Cir. 1994). A","paragraph_id":"para_396"},{"text":"complaint is not a collateral attack, however, when it is “not","paragraph_id":"para_397"},{"text":"based on the merits of any particular [agency] order.” Id. at","paragraph_id":"para_398"},{"text":"858. Whether a lawsuit presents a collateral attack must be","paragraph_id":"para_399"},{"text":"judged “on the face of the complaint.” Id. at 860.","paragraph_id":"para_400"},{"text":"Delta argues that the collateral attack doctrine bars the","paragraph_id":"para_401"},{"text":"district court from adjudicating Plaintiffs’ claims. 3","paragraph_id":"para_402"},{"text":"Plaintiffs, they assert, seek relief from pollution caused by","paragraph_id":"para_403"},{"text":"takeoffs and landings at Sea-Tac, but this conduct is","paragraph_id":"para_404"},{"text":"generally regulated by EPA actions and FAA orders. As an","paragraph_id":"para_405"},{"text":"illustrative list, Delta points to: EPA’s regulations of aircraft","paragraph_id":"para_406"},{"text":"emissions, including a recent rule examining health impacts","paragraph_id":"para_407"},{"text":"3 Delta does not argue, however, that Plaintiffs’ claims are “explicitly”","paragraph_id":"para_408"},{"text":"covered by the statutes. Americopters, 441 F.3d at 735. For good reason,","paragraph_id":"para_409"},{"text":"as Plaintiffs seek damages, among other remedies, and neither 42 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_410"},{"text":"§ 7607 nor 49 U.S.C. § 46110 provides for damages.","paragraph_id":"para_411"},{"text":"14 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_412"},{"text":"near airports like Sea-Tac; the FAA’s Finding of No","paragraph_id":"para_413"},{"text":"Significant Impact for the Greener Skies Over Seattle","paragraph_id":"para_414"},{"text":"initiative, in which the FAA set flight paths at Sea-Tac to","paragraph_id":"para_415"},{"text":"reduce environmental impacts; and the FAA’s authorization","paragraph_id":"para_416"},{"text":"of Sea-Tac’s third runway. Delta does not identify all the","paragraph_id":"para_417"},{"text":"relevant regulations that apply to Defendants’ conduct, but","paragraph_id":"para_418"},{"text":"offer this list of “example[s]” to show that regulations are","paragraph_id":"para_419"},{"text":"pervasive. And according to Delta, any harm arising out of","paragraph_id":"para_420"},{"text":"generally regulated conduct, or caused by regulated entities,","paragraph_id":"para_421"},{"text":"must be litigated under the relevant exclusive judicial review","paragraph_id":"para_422"},{"text":"provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_423"},{"text":"Delta’s collateral attack defense is not well taken.","paragraph_id":"para_424"},{"text":"Plaintiffs’ complaint is not “inescapably intertwined with","paragraph_id":"para_425"},{"text":"review of the procedures and merits surrounding” any","paragraph_id":"para_426"},{"text":"particular agency order. Americopters, 441 F.3d at 736","paragraph_id":"para_427"},{"text":"(quoting Crist, 138 F.3d at 803). Rather, the complaint takes","paragraph_id":"para_428"},{"text":"aim at a broad course of variably regulated conduct. That","paragraph_id":"para_429"},{"text":"makes the collateral attack doctrine inapplicable.","paragraph_id":"para_430"},{"text":"Among the live agency actions possibly relevant here,","paragraph_id":"para_431"},{"text":"the complaint does not implicate any “particular” action.","paragraph_id":"para_432"},{"text":"Mace, 34 F.3d at 858. Even in the collateral attack defense","paragraph_id":"para_433"},{"text":"we rejected in Mace, the complaint “stem[med] from” a","paragraph_id":"para_434"},{"text":"specific agency action, the revocation of one aircraft","paragraph_id":"para_435"},{"text":"mechanic’s certificate. Id. And in every case on which Delta","paragraph_id":"para_436"},{"text":"and amici rely, the plaintiffs challenged one or two","paragraph_id":"para_437"},{"text":"identifiable agency actions. 4 This complaint is not","paragraph_id":"para_438"},{"text":"4 See Americopters, 441 F.3d at 728, 731 (seeking rescission of FAA","paragraph_id":"para_439"},{"text":"orders and damages); Ctr. for Biological Diversity v. EPA, 847 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_440"},{"text":"1075, 1080 (9th Cir. 2017) (challenging specific agency action of","paragraph_id":"para_441"},{"text":"pesticide registration); Gilmore v. Gonzales, 435 F.3d 1125, 1129 n.1,","paragraph_id":"para_442"},{"text":"1131 (9th Cir. 2006) (challenging “enactment and enforcement” of","paragraph_id":"para_443"},{"text":"identification policy promulgated by FAA); Tur v. FAA, 104 F.3d 290,","paragraph_id":"para_444"},{"text":"291 (9th Cir. 1997) (challenging FAA’s rejection of a pilot’s license);","paragraph_id":"para_445"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 15","paragraph_id":"para_446"},{"text":"comparable. Plaintiffs claim, for example, that Defendants","paragraph_id":"para_447"},{"text":"negligently “shower pollutants on neighboring communities","paragraph_id":"para_448"},{"text":"in quantities that pose serious health risks.” But the agency","paragraph_id":"para_449"},{"text":"actions regulating this allegedly tortious act are innumerable,","paragraph_id":"para_450"},{"text":"touching on topics as varied as airplane and engine design,","paragraph_id":"para_451"},{"text":"fuel types, runway directions, flight paths, flight frequency,","paragraph_id":"para_452"},{"text":"flight hours, emissions level allowances—and surely many","paragraph_id":"para_453"},{"text":"more. Although the complaint generally implicates a","paragraph_id":"para_454"},{"text":"pervasive regulatory scheme that may support a preemption","paragraph_id":"para_455"},{"text":"defense, see, e.g., City of Burbank v. Lockheed Air Terminal","paragraph_id":"para_456"},{"text":"Inc., 411 U.S. 624, 638 (1973), it is not a collateral attack on","paragraph_id":"para_457"},{"text":"agency action.","paragraph_id":"para_458"},{"text":"Nor is the complaint “inescapably intertwined with a","paragraph_id":"para_459"},{"text":"review of the procedures and merits surrounding” any","paragraph_id":"para_460"},{"text":"agency order. Americopters, 441 F.3d at 736 (quoting Crist,","paragraph_id":"para_461"},{"text":"138 F.3d at 803). Delta stresses that if this case were to","paragraph_id":"para_462"},{"text":"proceed to trial, a jury might be asked to assess the","paragraph_id":"para_463"},{"text":"reasonableness of certain agency actions, such as EPA-","paragraph_id":"para_464"},{"text":"approved emissions levels or FAA-approved flight paths, or","paragraph_id":"para_465"},{"text":"the district court might grant relief conflicting with those","paragraph_id":"para_466"},{"text":"actions. But a jury might not be asked to make such","paragraph_id":"para_467"},{"text":"assessments, and the district court might not grant","paragraph_id":"para_468"},{"text":"conflicting relief. Defendants ignore the posture of the case","paragraph_id":"para_469"},{"text":"and our duty to look only to the facial allegations at this","paragraph_id":"para_470"},{"text":"Nichols, 784 F.3d at 503–04 (without naming EPA order, seeking","paragraph_id":"para_471"},{"text":"injunction against specific California regulation that EPA approved and","paragraph_id":"para_472"},{"text":"adopted); New England Legal Found. v. Costle, 666 F.2d 30, 31–32 (2d","paragraph_id":"para_473"},{"text":"Cir. 1981) (seeking injunction against burning fuel with EPA-approved","paragraph_id":"para_474"},{"text":"sulfur content); Krauss v. FAA, No. 15-CV-05365, 2016 WL 1162028,","paragraph_id":"para_475"},{"text":"at *1 (N.D. Cal. Mar. 24, 2016) (challenging one specific flight path","paragraph_id":"para_476"},{"text":"which FAA approved and seeking return to old flight path); McKay v.","paragraph_id":"para_477"},{"text":"City & County of San Francisco, No. 16-CV-03561, 2016 WL 7425927,","paragraph_id":"para_478"},{"text":"at *1 (N.D. Cal. Dec. 23, 2016) (challenging two specific flight paths).","paragraph_id":"para_479"},{"text":"16 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_480"},{"text":"stage. Mace, 34 F.3d at 860; Latif, 686 F.3d at 1127 n.5.","paragraph_id":"para_481"},{"text":"Because the complaint supports non-collateral trial theories","paragraph_id":"para_482"},{"text":"and remedies, the fact that it might also support a collateral","paragraph_id":"para_483"},{"text":"attack does not require dismissal at this stage.","paragraph_id":"para_484"},{"text":"To save their collateral attack defense, Delta asks us to","paragraph_id":"para_485"},{"text":"twist our precedent. Relying on our decision in Gilmore,","paragraph_id":"para_486"},{"text":"Delta argues that a suit is “inescapably intertwined” with","paragraph_id":"para_487"},{"text":"agency orders whenever it “arise[s] out of the particular","paragraph_id":"para_488"},{"text":"facts” of an encounter with a regulated party. 435 F.3d at","paragraph_id":"para_489"},{"text":"1133 n.9 (quoting Mace, 34 F.3d at 858).","paragraph_id":"para_490"},{"text":"Our holding in Gilmore was not so sweeping. Gilmore","paragraph_id":"para_491"},{"text":"concerned an encounter with agency officials and a regulated","paragraph_id":"para_492"},{"text":"entity acting pursuant to a single identifiable agency action,","paragraph_id":"para_493"},{"text":"TSA’s policy of requiring identification to board flights. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_494"},{"text":"at 1130, 1132 n.6. We held that the district court lacked","paragraph_id":"para_495"},{"text":"jurisdiction over the facial attack on the agency action, as","paragraph_id":"para_496"},{"text":"well as the as-applied challenges arising from the “particular","paragraph_id":"para_497"},{"text":"facts of Gilmore’s encounter with Southwest Airlines,”","paragraph_id":"para_498"},{"text":"where Southwest Airlines was acting pursuant to the same","paragraph_id":"para_499"},{"text":"expressly challenged action. Id. at 1133 n.9. Gilmore is thus","paragraph_id":"para_500"},{"text":"consistent with the basic rule that a collateral attack is one","paragraph_id":"para_501"},{"text":"that is “based on the merits of [a] particular [agency] order.”","paragraph_id":"para_502"},{"text":"Mace, 34 F.3d at 858. And it is consistent with our","paragraph_id":"para_503"},{"text":"subsequent observation that 49 U.S.C. § 46110 does not","paragraph_id":"para_504"},{"text":"grant the courts of appeals “direct and exclusive jurisdiction","paragraph_id":"para_505"},{"text":"over every possible dispute involving the FAA,” let alone","paragraph_id":"para_506"},{"text":"the entities it regulates. Americopters, 441 F.3d at 735.5F","paragraph_id":"para_507"},{"text":"5","paragraph_id":"para_508"},{"text":"Gilmore does not stand for the proposition that all","paragraph_id":"para_509","court_paragraph":5},{"text":"encounters with regulated entities give rise to claims that","paragraph_id":"para_510"},{"text":"must be heard only in the courts of appeals.","paragraph_id":"para_511"},{"text":"5 Gilmore and Americopters concerned only 49 U.S.C. § 46110.","paragraph_id":"para_512"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 17","paragraph_id":"para_513"},{"text":"Because Plaintiffs seek redress from a broad course of","paragraph_id":"para_514"},{"text":"variably regulated conduct, and Defendants cannot identify","paragraph_id":"para_515"},{"text":"any agency actions that are inescapably intertwined with the","paragraph_id":"para_516"},{"text":"complaint, the collateral attack doctrine is not applicable","paragraph_id":"para_517"},{"text":"here. The district court thus properly exercised jurisdiction.","paragraph_id":"para_518"},{"text":"B. Clean Air Act Express Preemption","paragraph_id":"para_519"},{"text":"We turn to the preemption question. Defendants argue","paragraph_id":"para_520"},{"text":"that Plaintiffs’ claims are preempted by federal law,","paragraph_id":"para_521"},{"text":"including Section 233 of the Clean Air Act, codified at 42","paragraph_id":"para_522"},{"text":"U.S.C. § 7573. We agree that Section 233 preempts the","paragraph_id":"para_523"},{"text":"claims in the operative complaint and so do not proceed to","paragraph_id":"para_524"},{"text":"consider Defendants’ defenses under the Airline","paragraph_id":"para_525"},{"text":"Deregulation Act and their implied preemption theories.","paragraph_id":"para_526"},{"text":"1. Section 233","paragraph_id":"para_527"},{"text":"The Constitution and laws of the United States are the","paragraph_id":"para_528"},{"text":"“supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State","paragraph_id":"para_529"},{"text":"shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or","paragraph_id":"para_530"},{"text":"Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.” U.S.","paragraph_id":"para_531"},{"text":"Const. art. VI, cl. 2. Accordingly, “Congress has the power","paragraph_id":"para_532"},{"text":"to preempt state law,” and it may “withdraw specified","paragraph_id":"para_533"},{"text":"powers from the States by enacting a statute containing an","paragraph_id":"para_534"},{"text":"express preemption provision.” Arizona v. United States,","paragraph_id":"para_535"},{"text":"567 U.S. 387, 399 (2012). When a statute contains an","paragraph_id":"para_536"},{"text":"express preemption clause, “the task of statutory","paragraph_id":"para_537"},{"text":"construction must in the first instance focus on the plain","paragraph_id":"para_538"},{"text":"wording of the clause, which necessarily contains the best","paragraph_id":"para_539"},{"text":"evidence of Congress’ pre-emptive intent.” CSX Transp.,","paragraph_id":"para_540"},{"text":"Inc. v. Easterwood, 507 U.S. 658, 664 (1993).","paragraph_id":"para_541"},{"text":"Added to the Clean Air Act in 1970, Section 233","paragraph_id":"para_542"},{"text":"provides that “[n]o State or political subdivision thereof may","paragraph_id":"para_543"},{"text":"adopt or attempt to enforce any standard respecting","paragraph_id":"para_544"},{"text":"18 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_545"},{"text":"emissions of any air pollutant from any aircraft or engine","paragraph_id":"para_546"},{"text":"thereof unless such standard is identical to a standard","paragraph_id":"para_547"},{"text":"applicable to such aircraft under this part.” 42 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_548"},{"text":"§ 7573; Clean Air Amendments of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91-","paragraph_id":"para_549"},{"text":"604, § 11(a)(1), 84 Stat. 1676, 1704–05 (1970).","paragraph_id":"para_550"},{"text":"Before applying Section 233, we define its key terms. In","paragraph_id":"para_551"},{"text":"the context of this preemption provision, the word","paragraph_id":"para_552"},{"text":"“standard” includes positive enactments of state law as well","paragraph_id":"para_553"},{"text":"as “state common-law rules.”6 See Nw., Inc. v. Ginsberg,","paragraph_id":"para_554"},{"text":"572 U.S. 273, 281–83 (2014) (interpreting the scope of the","paragraph_id":"para_555"},{"text":"ADA’s original preemption provision); Harris ex rel. Harris","paragraph_id":"para_556"},{"text":"v. Ford Motor Co., 110 F.3d 1410, 1414 (9th Cir. 1997)","paragraph_id":"para_557"},{"text":"(“‘[A]ny safety standard’ sweeps broadly and suggests no","paragraph_id":"para_558"},{"text":"distinction between positive enactments and common law.”","paragraph_id":"para_559"},{"text":"(quoting 15 U.S.C. § 1392(d) (1988)). “Use of the word","paragraph_id":"para_560"},{"text":"‘respecting’ in a legal context generally has a broadening","paragraph_id":"para_561"},{"text":"effect, ensuring that the scope of a provision covers not only","paragraph_id":"para_562"},{"text":"its subject but also matters relating to that subject.” Lamar,","paragraph_id":"para_563"},{"text":"Archer & Cofrin, LLP v. Appling, 584 U.S. 709, 717 (2018).","paragraph_id":"para_564"},{"text":"An “emission” is an “action of giving off or sending out","paragraph_id":"para_565"},{"text":"(chiefly what is subtle or imponderable, light, heat, gases,","paragraph_id":"para_566"},{"text":"odours, sounds, etc.).” Emission, 5 Oxford English","paragraph_id":"para_567"},{"text":"Dictionary 180 (2d ed. 1989). Finally, the Clean Air Act","paragraph_id":"para_568"},{"text":"elsewhere defines “air pollutant” as “any air pollution agent","paragraph_id":"para_569"},{"text":"or combination of such agents, including any physical,","paragraph_id":"para_570"},{"text":"chemical, biological, radioactive . . . substance or matter","paragraph_id":"para_571"},{"text":"6 The word “standard” generally excludes state law claims that seek only","paragraph_id":"para_572"},{"text":"to enforce “the parties’ voluntary undertaking[s],” such as state tort","paragraph_id":"para_573"},{"text":"actions for breach of contract. See Ginsberg, 572 U.S. at 284. Plaintiffs","paragraph_id":"para_574"},{"text":"do not argue that their claims seek to enforce voluntarily undertakings or","paragraph_id":"para_575"},{"text":"otherwise contest that their state law claims are “standard[s]” within the","paragraph_id":"para_576"},{"text":"meaning of Section 233.","paragraph_id":"para_577"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 19","paragraph_id":"para_578"},{"text":"which is emitted into or otherwise enters the ambient air.”","paragraph_id":"para_579"},{"text":"42 U.S.C. § 7602(g).","paragraph_id":"para_580"},{"text":"Section 233 does not categorically preempt all state law","paragraph_id":"para_581"},{"text":"claims. Rather, “[t]he proper inquiry calls for an","paragraph_id":"para_582"},{"text":"examination of the elements of the common-law duty at","paragraph_id":"para_583"},{"text":"issue.” Bates v. Dow Agrosciences LLC, 544 U.S. 431, 445","paragraph_id":"para_584"},{"text":"(2005). And the elements of the relevant duty must bear on","paragraph_id":"para_585"},{"text":"the preempted subject matter with the requisite specificity","paragraph_id":"para_586"},{"text":"prescribed by the statute.","paragraph_id":"para_587"},{"text":"Section 233 does, however, preempt Plaintiffs’ state law","paragraph_id":"para_588"},{"text":"claims. Here, the “standard[s]” that Plaintiffs seek to","paragraph_id":"para_589"},{"text":"“enforce” are “respecting emissions,” 42 U.S.C. § 7573, as","paragraph_id":"para_590"},{"text":"“respecting” is an exceptionally broad word, Lamar, 584","paragraph_id":"para_591"},{"text":"U.S. at 717. The central factual premise of the complaint is","paragraph_id":"para_592"},{"text":"that the Airlines are “giving off or sending out” pollutants as","paragraph_id":"para_593"},{"text":"they take off and land, Emission, 5 Oxford English","paragraph_id":"para_594"},{"text":"Dictionary 180, and that the Port permits the activities that","paragraph_id":"para_595"},{"text":"generate these emissions. In Plaintiffs’ view, Defendants","paragraph_id":"para_596"},{"text":"have been negligent, caused battery and trespass, created a","paragraph_id":"para_597"},{"text":"public nuisance, and inversely condemned property, all with","paragraph_id":"para_598"},{"text":"regards to or by way of these emissions. To allow Plaintiffs","paragraph_id":"para_599"},{"text":"to recover on these state law claims, then, would be to allow","paragraph_id":"para_600"},{"text":"the state of Washington to enforce common law and","paragraph_id":"para_601"},{"text":"constitutional duties “respecting emissions.” 42 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_602"},{"text":"§ 7573.","paragraph_id":"para_603"},{"text":"Plaintiffs argue that they do not target the original act of","paragraph_id":"para_604"},{"text":"emission, but the failure to clean up pollutants after","paragraph_id":"para_605"},{"text":"dispersal. Even so, such a failure-to-clean-up claim is still","paragraph_id":"para_606"},{"text":"“respecting” the emission of air pollutants, because it is at","paragraph_id":"para_607"},{"text":"least “relating to” such emissions, Lamar, 584 U.S. at 716","paragraph_id":"para_608"},{"text":"(quoting Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary","paragraph_id":"para_609"},{"text":"20 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_610"},{"text":"1542 (2d ed. 1979) [Webster’s]), or brought “in view of” the","paragraph_id":"para_611"},{"text":"original act of emission, id. (quoting Webster’s 1934).","paragraph_id":"para_612"},{"text":"Finally, the emissions that Plaintiffs take aim at are “of","paragraph_id":"para_613"},{"text":"[] air pollutant[s]” within the meaning of Section 233. At no","paragraph_id":"para_614"},{"text":"point in this litigation have Plaintiffs contended otherwise.","paragraph_id":"para_615"},{"text":"The complaint itself characterizes the offending substances","paragraph_id":"para_616"},{"text":"as “pollutants,” and identifies aircraft engine exhaust as the","paragraph_id":"para_617"},{"text":"primary pollutant source. The only other source of pollution","paragraph_id":"para_618"},{"text":"the complaint identifies is “particulate matter” that “flake[s]","paragraph_id":"para_619"},{"text":"off” aircraft fuselages. The complaint further alleges that","paragraph_id":"para_620"},{"text":"both the exhaust and the fuselage debris are composed of","paragraph_id":"para_621"},{"text":"pollutants that normally disperse in the air. Both the exhaust","paragraph_id":"para_622"},{"text":"and fuselage debris thus fall squarely within the definition of","paragraph_id":"para_623"},{"text":"“air pollutant” as defined by the Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_624"},{"text":"§ 7602(g), and as ordinarily understood, Air Pollutant,","paragraph_id":"para_625"},{"text":"Oxford English Dictionary Online [OED Online],","paragraph_id":"para_626"},{"text":"https://www.oed.com/dictionary/air-pollutant_n (last visited","paragraph_id":"para_627"},{"text":"Aug. 5, 2026); [https://perma.cc/FX5S-TW2T]. (“A","paragraph_id":"para_628"},{"text":"substance whose presence in the air constitutes pollution; a","paragraph_id":"para_629"},{"text":"pollutant of the air.”). If there are difficult questions to","paragraph_id":"para_630"},{"text":"answer about the scope of “air pollutant” in Section 233,","paragraph_id":"para_631"},{"text":"they are not presented by Plaintiffs’ complaint.","paragraph_id":"para_632"},{"text":"2. Navy","paragraph_id":"para_633"},{"text":"Plaintiffs argue that their claims are not preempted","paragraph_id":"para_634"},{"text":"because the relief they seek would not necessarily require the","paragraph_id":"para_635"},{"text":"Airlines to alter their aircraft or engines. For this argument,","paragraph_id":"para_636"},{"text":"Plaintiffs draw on our Section 233 decision in California v.","paragraph_id":"para_637"},{"text":"Navy, where we held that “if the state pollution regulations","paragraph_id":"para_638"},{"text":"can be met without affecting the design, structure, operation,","paragraph_id":"para_639"},{"text":"or performance of the aircraft engine, then the state emission","paragraph_id":"para_640"},{"text":"regulations are not preempted.” 624 F.2d at 888.","paragraph_id":"para_641"},{"text":"Accordingly, Plaintiffs suggest that Defendants could","paragraph_id":"para_642"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 21","paragraph_id":"para_643"},{"text":"provide compensation or remediate on-the-ground","paragraph_id":"para_644"},{"text":"contamination without changing any aircraft or engines, and","paragraph_id":"para_645"},{"text":"thus not run afoul of this rule.","paragraph_id":"para_646"},{"text":"We disagree. Understood in context, the test we","paragraph_id":"para_647"},{"text":"announced in Navy does not govern this case. There,","paragraph_id":"para_648"},{"text":"California sued the Navy to enforce state air quality","paragraph_id":"para_649"},{"text":"standards that the Navy had violated by testing detached","paragraph_id":"para_650"},{"text":"aircraft engines in “jet engine test cells.” Id. at 886. Jet","paragraph_id":"para_651"},{"text":"engine test cells are “immobile concrete housing structures”","paragraph_id":"para_652"},{"text":"that “hold the engine in place while it is run.” Id. at 886–87.","paragraph_id":"para_653"},{"text":"The emissions at issue originated from jet engines, but all","paragraph_id":"para_654"},{"text":"such emissions exited the test cells through 60-foot-tall","paragraph_id":"para_655"},{"text":"concrete smokestacks, and California was concerned only","paragraph_id":"para_656"},{"text":"with the emissions at the point they left the smokestacks. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_657"},{"text":"at 887; People of State of Cal. ex rel. State Air Res. Bd. v.","paragraph_id":"para_658"},{"text":"Dep’t of Navy, 431 F. Supp. 1271, 1275 (N.D. Cal. 1977).","paragraph_id":"para_659"},{"text":"Thus, the central issue in the case was whether the jet engine","paragraph_id":"para_660"},{"text":"test cells, as a whole, fell within the scope of Section 233.","paragraph_id":"para_661"},{"text":"Navy, 624 F.2d at 887. Or, put another way, whether an","paragraph_id":"para_662"},{"text":"emission from a smokestack is covered by Section 233","paragraph_id":"para_663"},{"text":"simply because the emission originates from a detached","paragraph_id":"para_664"},{"text":"aircraft engine. Answering that narrow question, we held","paragraph_id":"para_665"},{"text":"that “emissions from aircraft engine test cells are subject to","paragraph_id":"para_666"},{"text":"state pollution regulations if those regulations can be met","paragraph_id":"para_667"},{"text":"without affecting the engine.” Id. at 889. California’s","paragraph_id":"para_668"},{"text":"regulatory efforts were thus not preempted because the","paragraph_id":"para_669"},{"text":"district court found, and the Navy did not contest, that","paragraph_id":"para_670"},{"text":"“means exist whereby test cell emissions can be controlled","paragraph_id":"para_671"},{"text":"without affecting the engine”—namely, smokestack","paragraph_id":"para_672"},{"text":"filtration systems. Id. at 888–89, 888 n.6.","paragraph_id":"para_673"},{"text":"No similar question is present in this case, as Plaintiffs","paragraph_id":"para_674"},{"text":"do not seek to limit aircraft emissions passing through any","paragraph_id":"para_675"},{"text":"mediating stationary source. Rather, Plaintiffs seek redress","paragraph_id":"para_676"},{"text":"22 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_677"},{"text":"for pollution generated directly by aircraft bodies and","paragraph_id":"para_678"},{"text":"engines in flight, the core of Section 233’s preemptive reach.","paragraph_id":"para_679"},{"text":"In this context, and without the unique factual circumstance","paragraph_id":"para_680"},{"text":"of Navy’s test cells, we do not apply Navy’s test to decide","paragraph_id":"para_681"},{"text":"whether such emissions fall within the scope of Section 233.","paragraph_id":"para_682"},{"text":"They plainly do.","paragraph_id":"para_683"},{"text":"3. Identical Standard","paragraph_id":"para_684"},{"text":"Finally, the district court concluded that dismissal was","paragraph_id":"para_685"},{"text":"premature because Section 233 allows states to enforce","paragraph_id":"para_686"},{"text":"standards that are identical to EPA’s aircraft emission","paragraph_id":"para_687"},{"text":"standards. We agree that Section 233 allows for such","paragraph_id":"para_688"},{"text":"enforcement, but Plaintiffs’ complaint does not contain any","paragraph_id":"para_689"},{"text":"allegation that Defendants are violating federal law.","paragraph_id":"para_690"},{"text":"Therefore, the possibility of enforcing federal standards via","paragraph_id":"para_691"},{"text":"state law claims does not save Plaintiffs’ complaint here.","paragraph_id":"para_692"},{"text":"Section 233 does not preempt state law actions brought","paragraph_id":"para_693"},{"text":"to enforce federal emissions standards. Defendants concede","paragraph_id":"para_694"},{"text":"as much. Oral Argument at 16:54–17:45. That is because","paragraph_id":"para_695"},{"text":"Section 233 exempts from its scope state standards that are","paragraph_id":"para_696"},{"text":"“identical to a standard applicable to such aircraft under this","paragraph_id":"para_697"},{"text":"part.” 42 U.S.C. § 7573. And in other contexts, similar","paragraph_id":"para_698"},{"text":"statutes and carveouts have been read to allow states “to","paragraph_id":"para_699"},{"text":"provide a traditional damages remedy for violations of","paragraph_id":"para_700"},{"text":"common-law duties when those duties parallel federal","paragraph_id":"para_701"},{"text":"requirements.” Medtronic, Inc. v. Lohr, 518 U.S. 470, 495–","paragraph_id":"para_702"},{"text":"97 (1996) (plurality opinion); accord Riegel v. Medtronic,","paragraph_id":"para_703"},{"text":"Inc., 552 U.S. 312, 339 (2008); see also Silkwood v. Kerr-","paragraph_id":"para_704"},{"text":"McGee Corp., 464 U.S. 238, 257 (1984) (“Paying both","paragraph_id":"para_705"},{"text":"federal fines and state-imposed punitive damages for the","paragraph_id":"para_706"},{"text":"same incident would not appear to be physically impossible.","paragraph_id":"para_707"},{"text":"Nor does exposure to punitive damages frustrate any purpose","paragraph_id":"para_708"},{"text":"of the federal remedial scheme.”); Bates, 544 U.S. at 447–","paragraph_id":"para_709"},{"text":"CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE 23","paragraph_id":"para_710"},{"text":"52. Moreover, in enacting the Clean Air Act’s preemption","paragraph_id":"para_711"},{"text":"provisions, Congress was apparently concerned with","paragraph_id":"para_712"},{"text":"avoiding a patchwork of different emissions standards,","paragraph_id":"para_713"},{"text":"Engine Mfrs. Ass’n v. EPA, 88 F.3d 1075, 1079 (D.C. Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_714"},{"text":"1996), not a patchwork of enforcement mechanisms for the","paragraph_id":"para_715"},{"text":"same standard. See Bates, 544 U.S. at 452 (holding that","paragraph_id":"para_716"},{"text":"federal poisons law preempted “competing state labeling","paragraph_id":"para_717"},{"text":"standards” but not “state rules that are fully consistent with","paragraph_id":"para_718"},{"text":"federal requirements”).","paragraph_id":"para_719"},{"text":"Nonetheless, a plaintiff seeking to enforce federal","paragraph_id":"para_720"},{"text":"standards with state law claims must at least allege a","paragraph_id":"para_721"},{"text":"violation of federal law. See Medtronic, 518 U.S. at 495","paragraph_id":"para_722"},{"text":"(holding that, at the pleading stage, the “precise contours of","paragraph_id":"para_723"},{"text":"[the] theory of recovery” need not be defined, but the","paragraph_id":"para_724"},{"text":"allegations must at least support a claim that the defendant","paragraph_id":"para_725"},{"text":"has violated federal law); Nacarino v. Kashi Co., 77 F.4th","paragraph_id":"para_726"},{"text":"1201, 1212 (9th Cir. 2023) (“Plaintiffs’ complaints do not","paragraph_id":"para_727"},{"text":"allege that the challenged protein claims are misleading","paragraph_id":"para_728"},{"text":"within the meaning of the federal regulations. To the extent","paragraph_id":"para_729"},{"text":"that state law would hold Defendants to a different standard,","paragraph_id":"para_730"},{"text":"Plaintiffs’ claims are expressly preempted.”).","paragraph_id":"para_731"},{"text":"Here, Plaintiffs have not alleged that Defendants are","paragraph_id":"para_732"},{"text":"violating the emissions standards prescribed by EPA. At","paragraph_id":"para_733"},{"text":"oral argument, Plaintiffs explained that they intentionally","paragraph_id":"para_734"},{"text":"omitted any such allegation because they did not have, in","paragraph_id":"para_735"},{"text":"their opinion, sufficient supporting evidence. Oral","paragraph_id":"para_736"},{"text":"Argument at 25:20–25:22, 29:13–29:41. Whatever the","paragraph_id":"para_737"},{"text":"reason, the choice to omit such allegations is fatal to the","paragraph_id":"para_738"},{"text":"complaint. Nacarino, 77 F.4th at 1212.","paragraph_id":"para_739"},{"text":"24 CODONI V. PORT OF SEATTLE","paragraph_id":"para_740"},{"text":"IV. 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