{"attribution":{"source":"legal.exploreworldai.com","canonical":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca9-25-2366-2026-03-12","cite_as":"NovaCopilot, legal.exploreworldai.com (https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca9-25-2366-2026-03-12)","license":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/revision","version":"legal-2026-10-16","fingerprint":"ewai:us:20376f","proof":"sha256:b65de20291a3b8d2c0e73e1e5229be757aca661f4a56e2b422c69affb2b49e99","jurisdiction":"us","lang":"en","publisher":"NovaCopilot by ExploreWorld Legal","terms":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/om"},"brand_source":"Source: NovaCopilot","item":{"schema_version":"1.0.0","id":"us:ca9-25-2366-2026-03-12","jurisdiction":"us","lang":"en","brand_source":"Source: NovaCopilot","brand":{"product":"NovaCopilot","platform":"ExploreWorldAI","infrastructure":"ExploreWorld Legal","infrastructure_url":"legal.exploreworldai.com","legal_entity":"Valkiv Ventures AB","permanent_url":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/novacopilot","source":"Source: NovaCopilot","powered_by":"Powered by NovaCopilot","license":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/licensvillkor"},"sections":[{"title":"FOR PUBLICATION","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT","paragraphs":["para_4","para_5","para_6"]},{"title":"ROB BONTA, IN HIS OFFICIAL","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"CAPACITY AS ATTORNEY GENERAL OF","paragraphs":["para_9","para_10"]},{"title":"No. 25-2366","paragraphs":["para_12"]},{"title":"5:22-cv-08861-","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"BLF","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"OPINION","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Appeal from the United States District Court","paragraphs":["para_17"]},{"title":"Beth Labson Freeman, District Judge, Presiding","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Argued and Submitted January 14, 2026","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Pasadena, California","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Filed March 12, 2026","paragraphs":["para_22","para_23","para_24"]},{"title":"2 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"SUMMARY*","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"First Amendment","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"The panel affirmed in part and vacated in part the district","paragraphs":["para_29","para_30","para_31","para_32","para_33","para_34","para_35"]},{"title":"In a prior appeal, this panel affirmed the district court’s","paragraphs":["para_37","para_38","para_39","para_40","para_41","para_42","para_43","para_44","para_45","para_46"]},{"title":"On remand, NetChoice sought a second preliminary","paragraphs":["para_48","para_49","para_50"]},{"title":"This appeal concerns the CAADCA’s coverage","paragraphs":["para_52","para_53","para_54"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 3","paragraphs":["para_56","para_57","para_58","para_59","para_60"]},{"title":"The panel held that NetChoice is not likely to succeed on","paragraphs":["para_62","para_63","para_64","para_65","para_66","para_67","para_68","para_69","para_70"]},{"title":"The panel next held that NetChoice is not likely to","paragraphs":["para_72","para_73","para_74","para_75","para_76","para_77","para_78","para_79"]},{"title":"The panel affirmed the district court’s injunction with","paragraphs":["para_81","para_82","para_83"]},{"title":"Lastly, the panel vacated the district court’s order insofar","paragraphs":["para_85","para_86","para_87"]},{"title":"4 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_89","para_90"]},{"title":"The panel remanded to the district court for further","paragraphs":["para_92"]},{"title":"COUNSEL","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"David M. Gossett (argued) and Meenakshi Krishnan, Davis","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Wright Tremaine LLP, Washington, D.C.; Ambika Kumar","paragraphs":["para_96"]},{"title":"Seattle, Washington; Adam S. Sieff, Davis Wright Tremaine","paragraphs":["para_98","para_99","para_100","para_101","para_102","para_103"]},{"title":"California Attorney General; Office of the California","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Attorney General, San Francisco, California; for Defendant-","paragraphs":["para_106"]},{"title":"Ariel F. Johnson, Digital Smarts Law & Policy LLC, Shaker","paragraphs":["para_108","para_109"]},{"title":"California; Meetali Jain and Melodi Dinçer, Tech Justice","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Law Project, Washington, D.C.; Mihir Kshirsagar, Center","paragraphs":["para_112","para_113"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 5","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Megan Iorio and Tom McBrien, Electronic Privacy","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Information Center, Washington, D.C., for Amicus Curiae","paragraphs":["para_117","para_118"]},{"title":"Electronic Frontier Foundation, San Francisco, California;","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Samir Jain, Eric Null, and Kate Ruane, Center for","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Democracy & Technology, Washington, D.C.; for Amici","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation, Center for","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Democracy & Technology, Internet Archive, and","paragraphs":["para_124","para_125"]},{"title":"Palo Alto, California; Stephanie A. Joyce, Computer &","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Communications Industry Association, Washington, D.C.;","paragraphs":["para_128","para_129","para_130","para_131"]},{"title":"D.C., for Amici Curiae the Reporters Committee for","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Freedom of the Press, Advance Publications, Hearst","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Corporation, The New York Times Company, Reuters, and","paragraphs":["para_135","para_136"]},{"title":"Veitch, Hogan Lovells US LLP, Washington, D.C.;","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Lawrence Walters, Walters Law Group, Longwood, Florida;","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Kathleen Farley, Chamber of Progress, McLean, Virginia;","paragraphs":["para_140","para_141"]},{"title":"6 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"OPINION","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"M. SMITH, Circuit Judge:","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NetChoice, LLC (NetChoice), a trade association of","paragraphs":["para_146","para_147"]},{"title":"Act (CAADCA or Act), Cal. Civ. Code §§ 1798.99.28–","paragraphs":["para_149"]},{"title":"NetChoice brought suit in the United States District Court","paragraphs":["para_151","para_152","para_153","para_154","para_155","para_156","para_157","para_158","para_159","para_160"]},{"title":"CAADCA’s requirement that covered businesses mitigate","paragraphs":["para_162"]},{"title":"Cal. Civ. Code §§ 1798.99.31(a)(1)–(2), and provisions not","paragraphs":["para_164","para_165"]},{"title":"NetChoice’s other First Amendment challenges and to","paragraphs":["para_167","para_168"]},{"title":"On remand, NetChoice sought a second preliminary","paragraphs":["para_170","para_171","para_172","para_173"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 7","paragraphs":["para_175","para_176","para_177","para_178","para_179","para_180","para_181","para_182","para_183"]},{"title":"Grange v. Wash. State Republican Party, 552 U.S. 442, 449–","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"50 (2008); Project Veritas v. Schmidt, 125 F.4th 929, 939–","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"40 (9th Cir. 2025) (en banc). NetChoice has been a party to","paragraphs":["para_187"]},{"title":"Court—and is presumably aware of the expectations for a","paragraphs":["para_189","para_190"]},{"title":"We also vacate the district court’s order insofar as it","paragraphs":["para_192","para_193","para_194"]},{"title":"CAADCA’s remaining provisions are not volitionally","paragraphs":["para_196"]},{"title":"Civ. Code § 1798.99.35(c)(2). We remand to the district","paragraphs":["para_198"]},{"title":"LEGAL BACKGROUND","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"In 2022, the California legislature unanimously enacted","paragraphs":["para_201","para_202","para_203","para_204","para_205","para_206"]},{"title":"8 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_208","para_209","para_210","para_211","para_212","para_213","para_214","para_215","para_216"]},{"title":"2024, this same panel of our court affirmed a preliminary","paragraphs":["para_218","para_219"]},{"title":"(DPIA) report, or a “systematic survey to assess and mitigate","paragraphs":["para_221","para_222","para_223","para_224"]},{"title":"1798.99.31(a)(1)(B); see NetChoice, LLC v. Bonta","paragraphs":["para_226"]},{"title":"That requirement remains enjoined and is not at issue in this","paragraphs":["para_228"]},{"title":"This appeal concerns the CAADCA’s coverage","paragraphs":["para_230","para_231","para_232"]},{"title":"(7). The California Attorney General has authority to","paragraphs":["para_234","para_235","para_236","para_237"]},{"title":"The Act previously included a safe-harbor provision that","paragraphs":["para_239"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 9","paragraphs":["para_241"]},{"title":"General of the alleged violation. Id. § 1798.99.35(c)(2). We","paragraphs":["para_243","para_244"]},{"title":"FACTUAL & PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NetChoice is trade association whose members consist","paragraphs":["para_247","para_248","para_249"]},{"title":"2022, before the CAADCA took effect, NetChoice brought","paragraphs":["para_251","para_252","para_253","para_254","para_255","para_256","para_257"]},{"title":"The State appealed. While that appeal was pending, the","paragraphs":["para_259"]},{"title":"LLC, 603 U.S. 707 (2024), where it clarified the standard for","paragraphs":["para_261","para_262","para_263"]},{"title":"Amendment facial challenge. See NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"1108, 1123–24. We therefore vacated the majority of the","paragraphs":["para_266","para_267","para_268","para_269"]},{"title":"First Amendment. Id. We likewise affirmed the district","paragraphs":["para_271"]},{"title":"10 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_273","para_274"]},{"title":"On remand, NetChoice filed a first amended complaint","paragraphs":["para_276"]},{"title":"The FAC asserted a new facial First Amendment challenge","paragraphs":["para_278","para_279","para_280","para_281","para_282","para_283"]},{"title":"NetChoice’s second preliminary injunction motion","paragraphs":["para_285","para_286"]},{"title":"Ruling on that motion, the district court agreed with","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NetChoice that the coverage provision defining “likely to be","paragraphs":["para_289"]},{"title":"Amendment scrutiny for the entire statute. The district court","paragraphs":["para_291","para_292","para_293","para_294","para_295","para_296","para_297","para_298"]},{"title":"Because, as the district court noted, some courts have","paragraphs":["para_300","para_301"]},{"title":"NetChoice’s challenges to individual provisions of the","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"CAADCA. It first concluded that all the CAADCA’s","paragraphs":["para_304"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 11","paragraphs":["para_306","para_307","para_308","para_309","para_310","para_311","para_312","para_313","para_314","para_315","para_316"]},{"title":"Code § 1798.99.31(a)(9). Next, the district court turned to","paragraphs":["para_318","para_319","para_320"]},{"title":"The district court then addressed NetChoice’s claims that","paragraphs":["para_322","para_323","para_324"]},{"title":"Protection Act (COPPA), 15 U.S.C. §§ 6501–06, and","paragraphs":["para_326","para_327","para_328","para_329","para_330"]},{"title":"NetChoice had “devote[d] a single sentence of its","paragraphs":["para_332","para_333"]},{"title":"12 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_335","para_336"]},{"title":"Because the district court concluded that NetChoice met","paragraphs":["para_338","para_339","para_340","para_341","para_342","para_343"]},{"title":"JURISDICTION & STANDARD OF REVIEW","paragraphs":["para_345"]},{"title":"We “review the district court’s decision to grant a","paragraphs":["para_347"]},{"title":"City of Seattle, 91 F.4th 1318, 1324 (9th Cir. 2024) (quoting","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Daniels Sharpsmart, Inc. v. Smith, 889 F.3d 608, 613 (9th","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Cir. 2018)). The district court “‘abuses its discretion if it","paragraphs":["para_351","para_352"]},{"title":"Ass’n v. City & Cnty. of San Francisco, 916 F.3d 749, 754","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(9th Cir. 2019) (en banc) (citation modified)). “A district","paragraphs":["para_355"]},{"title":"(1) the court did not employ the appropriate legal standards","paragraphs":["para_357","para_358","para_359","para_360","para_361"]},{"title":"1 NetChoice’s as-applied claims and its challenge to the CAADCA’s","paragraphs":["para_363","para_364"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 13","paragraphs":["para_366","para_367"]},{"title":"ANALYSIS","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"To obtain a preliminary injunction, NetChoice must","paragraphs":["para_370","para_371","para_372","para_373"]},{"title":"Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc., 555 U.S. 7, 20 (2008). The","paragraphs":["para_375","para_376"]},{"title":"584 F.3d 1196, 1201 (9th Cir. 2009). As in its last round","paragraphs":["para_378","para_379"]},{"title":"113 F.4th at 1115. We therefore focus our analysis on","paragraphs":["para_381","para_382","para_383"]},{"title":"I. NetChoice is not likely to succeed on the merits of","paragraphs":["para_385","para_386"]},{"title":"Under the First Amendment, “[c]ontent-based laws—","paragraphs":["para_388","para_389","para_390","para_391","para_392","para_393","para_394","para_395"]},{"title":"Health Inc., 564 U.S. 552, 566 (2011). Courts may","paragraphs":["para_397"]},{"title":"14 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_399","para_400","para_401","para_402","para_403"]},{"title":"The Supreme Court has also recognized “a separate and","paragraphs":["para_405","para_406","para_407","para_408","para_409","para_410"]},{"title":"Sorrell, 564 U.S. at 566 (“Even if the hypothetical measure","paragraphs":["para_412","para_413","para_414","para_415","para_416","para_417","para_418","para_419","para_420","para_421","para_422","para_423","para_424"]},{"title":"Next, we ask “whether the [statute] is content based or","paragraphs":["para_426","para_427","para_428","para_429","para_430"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 15","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"But that is not all: NetChoice must also satisfy the","paragraphs":["para_433","para_434"]},{"title":"Supreme Court explained that district courts evaluating a","paragraphs":["para_436","para_437","para_438","para_439","para_440"]},{"title":"Bonta, 594 U.S. 595, 615 (2021)). That analysis proceeds in","paragraphs":["para_442","para_443","para_444"]},{"title":"Second, courts must “decide which of the law[’s]","paragraphs":["para_446","para_447","para_448","para_449"]},{"title":"LLC v. Bonta (NetChoice SB 976), 152 F.4th 1002, 1013 (9th","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Cir. 2025). Here, “[i]t is NetChoice’s burden to make those","paragraphs":["para_452"]},{"title":"A. NetChoice does not carry its burden for its","paragraphs":["para_454","para_455"]},{"title":"The CAADCA applies to any “business that provides an","paragraphs":["para_457","para_458"]},{"title":"2 For terms not expressly defined in the CAADCA, the Act incorporates","paragraphs":["para_460","para_461","para_462","para_463"]},{"title":"16 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_465","para_466","para_467","para_468","para_469"]},{"title":"(A) The online service, product, or feature is","paragraphs":["para_471"]},{"title":"Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act","paragraphs":["para_473"]},{"title":"(B) The online service, product, or feature is","paragraphs":["para_475","para_476","para_477","para_478"]},{"title":"(C) An online service, product, or feature","paragraphs":["para_480","para_481"]},{"title":"(D) An online service, product, or feature that","paragraphs":["para_483","para_484","para_485"]},{"title":"(E) An online service, product, or feature that","paragraphs":["para_487","para_488","para_489","para_490","para_491","para_492","para_493","para_494"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 17","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(F) A significant amount of the audience of","paragraphs":["para_497","para_498","para_499","para_500"]},{"title":"On appeal, the State argues that this coverage definition","paragraphs":["para_502","para_503","para_504","para_505","para_506","para_507"]},{"title":"The district court held that “[a]pplication of [the","paragraphs":["para_509","para_510","para_511"]},{"title":"The district court reasoned that the coverage definition","paragraphs":["para_513","para_514","para_515","para_516","para_517","para_518","para_519","para_520","para_521","para_522","para_523","para_524","para_525","para_526"]},{"title":"18 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"We disagree. Unlike the enjoined DPIA report","paragraphs":["para_529","para_530"]},{"title":"NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1116, the coverage definition does","paragraphs":["para_532","para_533","para_534"]},{"title":"Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4), “says nothing about the nature of","paragraphs":["para_536"]},{"title":"Indeed, as the State proffers, children “are capable of using","paragraphs":["para_538","para_539","para_540","para_541","para_542","para_543","para_544","para_545","para_546","para_547"]},{"title":"Consciousness, Inc., 452 U.S. 640, 649 (1981); see also Hill","paragraphs":["para_549","para_550","para_551","para_552"]},{"title":"3 To the extent NetChoice argues that the coverage definition raises the","paragraphs":["para_554","para_555","para_556","para_557","para_558","para_559","para_560","para_561"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 19","paragraphs":["para_563","para_564"]},{"title":"The CAADCA’s coverage definition consists of six","paragraphs":["para_566","para_567"]},{"title":"Because each indicator demands different inquiries of online","paragraphs":["para_569","para_570","para_571","para_572","para_573","para_574"]},{"title":"Civ. Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(B). Similarly, a business","paragraphs":["para_576","para_577","para_578","para_579"]},{"title":"Determining whether a service is “routinely accessed by a","paragraphs":["para_581","para_582","para_583","para_584","para_585","para_586"]},{"title":"See also NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at 1022 (concluding","paragraphs":["para_588","para_589"]},{"title":"Media Addiction Act is unripe in part because “NetChoice","paragraphs":["para_591","para_592"]},{"title":"20 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_594","para_595"]},{"title":"However, an online business also comes within the","paragraphs":["para_597","para_598","para_599","para_600","para_601","para_602","para_603","para_604","para_605","para_606","para_607","para_608","para_609","para_610","para_611"]},{"title":"Nowhere does the definition require that all six","paragraphs":["para_613","para_614","para_615","para_616"]},{"title":"4 NetChoice asserts that “audience composition” “turn[s] in significant","paragraphs":["para_618","para_619","para_620","para_621","para_622","para_623","para_624"]},{"title":"5 In its answering brief, NetChoice itself reads the coverage indicators as","paragraphs":["para_626"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 21","paragraphs":["para_628","para_629","para_630","para_631"]},{"title":"Id. § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(B), (D). Indicators (B) and (F)","paragraphs":["para_633","para_634","para_635","para_636","para_637","para_638","para_639","para_640","para_641","para_642"]},{"title":"Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(A), (C), (E); if all six indicators","paragraphs":["para_644","para_645","para_646","para_647","para_648","para_649","para_650","para_651","para_652"]},{"title":"To illustrate the point, recall the State’s examples of","paragraphs":["para_654","para_655","para_656","para_657","para_658","para_659","para_660"]},{"title":"22 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_662","para_663","para_664","para_665","para_666","para_667"]},{"title":"It may well be the case that a significant number of","paragraphs":["para_669","para_670","para_671","para_672","para_673"]},{"title":"First Amendment analysis is fact intensive and will surely","paragraphs":["para_675"]},{"title":"F.4th at 1014 (citation modified). And it is NetChoice’s","paragraphs":["para_677","para_678","para_679"]},{"title":"NetChoice’s focus on applications of the CAADCA that","paragraphs":["para_681","para_682","para_683","para_684","para_685","para_686","para_687"]},{"title":"NetChoice’s challenges ‘more like as-applied claims than","paragraphs":["para_689"]},{"title":"724). “[N]either parties nor courts can disregard the","paragraphs":["para_691","para_692"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 23","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NetChoice makes the same critical error here. It focuses","paragraphs":["para_695","para_696","para_697","para_698","para_699","para_700"]},{"title":"NetChoice may not “treat[] the law[] as having certain","paragraphs":["para_702","para_703"]},{"title":"NetChoice’s reliance on several cases where district courts","paragraphs":["para_705"]},{"title":"Amendment review and subjects the entire statute to strict","paragraphs":["para_707","para_708","para_709","para_710","para_711"]},{"title":"6 See NetChoice, LLC v. Carr, 789 F. Supp. 3d 1200 (N.D. Ga. 2025);","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NetChoice, LLC v. Fitch, 787 F. Supp. 3d 262 (S.D. Miss. 2025);","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NetChoice, LLC v. Yost, 778 F. Supp. 3d 923, 953‒54 (S.D. Ohio 2025);","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"SEAT v. Paxton, 765 F. Supp. 3d 575 (W.D. Tex. 2025); NetChoice, LLC","paragraphs":["para_716","para_717","para_718"]},{"title":"7 See Carr, 789 F. Supp. 3d at 1222 (finding statute content based on its","paragraphs":["para_720","para_721","para_722","para_723","para_724"]},{"title":"(finding statute content based because it classifies based on whether the","paragraphs":["para_726","para_727","para_728"]},{"title":"24 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_730","para_731","para_732","para_733"]},{"title":"Moreover, in another recent case involving NetChoice, a","paragraphs":["para_735","para_736"]},{"title":"Media Addiction Act, Cal. Health & Safety Code §§ 27000–","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"07, which made the statute applicable “to any internet","paragraphs":["para_739","para_740","para_741","para_742","para_743","para_744","para_745","para_746","para_747","para_748","para_749","para_750","para_751","para_752","para_753","para_754","para_755","para_756","para_757"]},{"title":"SEAT, 765 F. Supp. 3d at 592–94 (reaching the same conclusion as","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"CCIA); Reyes, 748 F. Supp. 3d 1105 at 1121 (coverage definition that","paragraphs":["para_760","para_761","para_762","para_763"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 25","paragraphs":["para_765","para_766","para_767","para_768"]},{"title":"At bottom, to properly assert a facial challenge, it is","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NetChoice’s burden to establish the CAADCA’s “full","paragraphs":["para_771"]},{"title":"F.4th at 1123. If NetChoice’s prime concern is the","paragraphs":["para_773","para_774","para_775"]},{"title":"1020 (“[F]acial challengers cannot focus on a law’s effect on","paragraphs":["para_777","para_778","para_779","para_780"]},{"title":"(quoting Moody, 603 U.S. at 724)). Instead, NetChoice","paragraphs":["para_782","para_783"]},{"title":"NetChoice to “develop a record that would allow the court","paragraphs":["para_785","para_786"]},{"title":"NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at 1021 (alteration in original)","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(quoting Moody, 603 U.S. at 718, 724). We “cannot","paragraphs":["para_789","para_790","para_791"]},{"title":"8 For all of NetChoice’s focus on content, nowhere does it explain the","paragraphs":["para_793","para_794","para_795","para_796","para_797"]},{"title":"26 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_799","para_800","para_801","para_802","para_803","para_804","para_805","para_806"]},{"title":"Moody, 603 U.S. at 745 (Barrett, J., concurring); and then","paragraphs":["para_808","para_809"]},{"title":"But we nevertheless stated then, and maintain now, that “[i]t","paragraphs":["para_811","para_812","para_813","para_814","para_815","para_816"]},{"title":"We need not decide today whether any of the coverage","paragraphs":["para_818","para_819","para_820","para_821","para_822","para_823","para_824"]},{"title":"CAADCA and remand for the district court to consider the","paragraphs":["para_826","para_827","para_828"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 27","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"II. NetChoice’s challenges to individual provisions","paragraphs":["para_831","para_832","para_833"]},{"title":"In the alternative to NetChoice’s coverage-definition","paragraphs":["para_835","para_836","para_837","para_838","para_839","para_840","para_841","para_842","para_843","para_844","para_845","para_846"]},{"title":"A. NetChoice is not likely to succeed on the","paragraphs":["para_848","para_849"]},{"title":"The CAADCA requires covered businesses to","paragraphs":["para_851","para_852","para_853","para_854"]},{"title":"Id. § 1798.99.31(a)(5). Before the district court, NetChoice","paragraphs":["para_856","para_857","para_858","para_859","para_860","para_861"]},{"title":"28 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_863","para_864","para_865","para_866","para_867","para_868","para_869","para_870","para_871","para_872","para_873","para_874","para_875","para_876"]},{"title":"On appeal, the State maintains that the age estimation","paragraphs":["para_878","para_879","para_880","para_881","para_882"]},{"title":"The State further contends that even if the First Amendment","paragraphs":["para_884","para_885","para_886","para_887"]},{"title":"On the record before us, we cannot say that the age","paragraphs":["para_889"]},{"title":"Amendment at all, much less in a substantial majority of its","paragraphs":["para_891","para_892","para_893","para_894","para_895"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 29","paragraphs":["para_897","para_898","para_899","para_900","para_901"]},{"title":"See NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1122 (observing that “most of","paragraphs":["para_903","para_904","para_905","para_906","para_907","para_908"]},{"title":"NetChoice in this suit.” The provision is clear that","paragraphs":["para_910","para_911","para_912","para_913","para_914","para_915","para_916","para_917"]},{"title":"606 U.S. 461 (2025), also does not persuade. Free Speech","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Coalition considered a statute that required covered entities","paragraphs":["para_920","para_921","para_922","para_923"]},{"title":"Prac. & Rem. Code § 129B.003(b)(2)). The Supreme Court","paragraphs":["para_925","para_926","para_927","para_928","para_929"]},{"title":"30 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_931","para_932","para_933","para_934","para_935","para_936"]},{"title":"To the extent NetChoice argues that the age estimation","paragraphs":["para_938","para_939","para_940","para_941","para_942","para_943","para_944","para_945","para_946","para_947","para_948","para_949","para_950","para_951","para_952","para_953","para_954"]},{"title":"We determined in NetChoice I that the “DPIA report","paragraphs":["para_956","para_957","para_958","para_959","para_960","para_961","para_962","para_963"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 31","paragraphs":["para_965","para_966","para_967","para_968"]},{"title":"To the extent the term “data management practices” in","paragraphs":["para_970","para_971","para_972","para_973","para_974","para_975","para_976","para_977","para_978","para_979","para_980","para_981","para_982"]},{"title":"The parties do not develop these arguments, and the","paragraphs":["para_984"]},{"title":"Accordingly, we vacate the preliminary injunction as to the","paragraphs":["para_986","para_987","para_988","para_989","para_990","para_991","para_992","para_993","para_994"]},{"title":"We also remand for further consideration of the age","paragraphs":["para_996"]},{"title":"32 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_998","para_999","para_1000"]},{"title":"F.4th at 1123 (alterations in original) (quoting Moody, 603","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"U.S. at 724). In NetChoice I, we made that clear with respect","paragraphs":["para_1003","para_1004"]},{"title":"In this appeal, there was no detailed record that would","paragraphs":["para_1006","para_1007","para_1008","para_1009"]},{"title":"(emphasis added); see also NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"1021–22. Courts must be able to “carefully parse not only","paragraphs":["para_1012","para_1013","para_1014","para_1015","para_1016","para_1017","para_1018","para_1019","para_1020","para_1021","para_1022","para_1023","para_1024","para_1025","para_1026","para_1027","para_1028","para_1029"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 33","paragraphs":["para_1031","para_1032"]},{"title":"Consequently, we cannot determine, from our appellate","paragraphs":["para_1034","para_1035","para_1036"]},{"title":"B. NetChoice is likely to succeed on the merits of","paragraphs":["para_1038","para_1039","para_1040"]},{"title":"We turn next to the preliminary injunction as to the","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"CAADCA’s data use restrictions and the dark patterns","paragraphs":["para_1043","para_1044","para_1045","para_1046"]},{"title":"Stations, Inc., 567 U.S. 239, 253 (2012). That principle","paragraphs":["para_1048","para_1049","para_1050","para_1051","para_1052","para_1053"]},{"title":"Labrador, 122 F.4th 787, 805 (9th Cir. 2024). When","paragraphs":["para_1055","para_1056","para_1057","para_1058","para_1059","para_1060"]},{"title":"34 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"1. Data Use Provisions","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"The challenged data use provisions restrict the ways in","paragraphs":["para_1064","para_1065","para_1066"]},{"title":"(b) A business that provides an online","paragraphs":["para_1068","para_1069","para_1070"]},{"title":"(1) Use the personal information of any child","paragraphs":["para_1072","para_1073","para_1074","para_1075"]},{"title":"(2) Profile a child by default unless both of","paragraphs":["para_1077"]},{"title":"(A) The business can demonstrate it has","paragraphs":["para_1079","para_1080"]},{"title":"(B) Either of the following is true:","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(i) Profiling is necessary to provide","paragraphs":["para_1083","para_1084","para_1085","para_1086","para_1087","para_1088"]},{"title":"(ii) The business can demonstrate a","paragraphs":["para_1090","para_1091"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 35","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(3) Collect, sell, share, or retain any personal","paragraphs":["para_1094","para_1095","para_1096","para_1097","para_1098","para_1099","para_1100","para_1101"]},{"title":"(4) If the end user is a child, use personal","paragraphs":["para_1103","para_1104","para_1105","para_1106","para_1107","para_1108","para_1109","para_1110"]},{"title":"NetChoice challenged these provisions for their reliance","paragraphs":["para_1112","para_1113"]},{"title":"NetChoice and concluded that these “terms have no","paragraphs":["para_1115","para_1116","para_1117","para_1118","para_1119","para_1120","para_1121"]},{"title":"The State contends that “material detriment” and","paragraphs":["para_1123"]},{"title":"36 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_1125","para_1126","para_1127","para_1128","para_1129","para_1130","para_1131","para_1132","para_1133","para_1134","para_1135","para_1136","para_1137","para_1138","para_1139","para_1140","para_1141","para_1142","para_1143","para_1144","para_1145","para_1146","para_1147","para_1148","para_1149"]},{"title":"The State next maintains that the term “best interests of","paragraphs":["para_1151"]},{"title":"California’s standard “to determine child custody","paragraphs":["para_1153","para_1154","para_1155","para_1156","para_1157"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 37","paragraphs":["para_1159"]},{"title":"State’s reading is incompatible with the data use restrictions’","paragraphs":["para_1161","para_1162","para_1163","para_1164","para_1165"]},{"title":"91 (Cal. 2004) (citation modified). The standard operates","paragraphs":["para_1167"]},{"title":"See id. The data use restrictions ask something categorically","paragraphs":["para_1169","para_1170","para_1171","para_1172","para_1173"]},{"title":"Then covered businesses must tailor their practice","paragraphs":["para_1175","para_1176","para_1177","para_1178","para_1179"]},{"title":"The State’s argument that the provision’s scienter","paragraphs":["para_1181","para_1182","para_1183","para_1184","para_1185"]},{"title":"489, 499 (1982); see also Hill, 530 U.S. at 732. But “[t]he","paragraphs":["para_1187","para_1188"]},{"title":"Hoffman Estates, 455 U.S. at 498. The critical flaw of the","paragraphs":["para_1190","para_1191"]},{"title":"38 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"943 (9th Cir. 2006). Put another way, the “reason to know”","paragraphs":["para_1194","para_1195","para_1196"]},{"title":"The State contends that “reason to know” is frequently","paragraphs":["para_1198","para_1199","para_1200","para_1201","para_1202","para_1203"]},{"title":"RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF TORTS § 12 (1965). And","paragraphs":["para_1205","para_1206","para_1207","para_1208","para_1209","para_1210","para_1211","para_1212"]},{"title":"Montana, 695 F.2d 1214, 1221 (9th Cir. 1983) (describing","paragraphs":["para_1214","para_1215"]},{"title":"F.3d at 943 (“Whether a defendant is guilty of having","paragraphs":["para_1217","para_1218","para_1219","para_1220"]},{"title":"(citation modified)). The structure of the provision is clear:","paragraphs":["para_1222","para_1223","para_1224","para_1225"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 39","paragraphs":["para_1227","para_1228"]},{"title":"2. Dark Patterns Restriction","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"The parties make similar arguments respecting the","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"CAADCA’s dark patterns restriction. That provision","paragraphs":["para_1232"]},{"title":"Us[ing] dark patterns to lead or encourage","paragraphs":["para_1234","para_1235","para_1236","para_1237","para_1238","para_1239","para_1240","para_1241","para_1242"]},{"title":"The district court found this provision unconstitutionally","paragraphs":["para_1244","para_1245","para_1246","para_1247","para_1248","para_1249","para_1250","para_1251","para_1252"]},{"title":"9 The Act incorporates a definition of a “dark pattern” as “a user interface","paragraphs":["para_1254","para_1255","para_1256"]},{"title":"40 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_1258","para_1259"]},{"title":"As with the data use restrictions, the State’s plain-","paragraphs":["para_1261","para_1262","para_1263","para_1264","para_1265","para_1266","para_1267","para_1268","para_1269","para_1270","para_1271","para_1272"]},{"title":"Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(b)(7). Businesses of ordinary","paragraphs":["para_1274","para_1275"]},{"title":"108 (1972). The “reason to know” scienter requirement also","paragraphs":["para_1277","para_1278","para_1279","para_1280","para_1281","para_1282","para_1283","para_1284","para_1285","para_1286"]},{"title":"Absent statutory guidance on the meaning of “material[]","paragraphs":["para_1288"]},{"title":"We therefore affirm the district court’s injunction with","paragraphs":["para_1290"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 41","paragraphs":["para_1292","para_1293","para_1294"]},{"title":"(9th Cir. 1998) (citation modified). These provisions do not","paragraphs":["para_1296"]},{"title":"III. It remains unclear whether the notice-and-cure","paragraphs":["para_1298","para_1299"]},{"title":"We turn next to severability. Specifically, the parties","paragraphs":["para_1301"]},{"title":"CAADCA are separable from the notice-and-cure provision","paragraphs":["para_1303","para_1304","para_1305","para_1306","para_1307","para_1308","para_1309","para_1310","para_1311","para_1312","para_1313","para_1314","para_1315","para_1316"]},{"title":"2014). Under California law, an invalid statutory provision","paragraphs":["para_1318","para_1319","para_1320"]},{"title":"2011) (quoting Calfarm Ins. Co. v. Deukmejian, 48 Cal.3d","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"805, 821 (1989) (en banc)). The parties dispute only","paragraphs":["para_1323"]},{"title":"42 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":["para_1325","para_1326","para_1327"]},{"title":"Id. at 608 (citation modified). While the presence of a","paragraphs":["para_1329","para_1330","para_1331"]},{"title":"4th 322, 352 (2009). The California Supreme Court has","paragraphs":["para_1333","para_1334","para_1335","para_1336","para_1337"]},{"title":"Matosantos, 267 P.3d at 609. Accordingly, even where “the","paragraphs":["para_1339","para_1340","para_1341","para_1342"]},{"title":"Sch. Dist. v. Superior Court, 530 P.2d 605, 618 (Cal. 1975)","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(en banc). Thus, the question is whether the notice-and-cure","paragraphs":["para_1345","para_1346","para_1347","para_1348","para_1349","para_1350","para_1351","para_1352"]},{"title":"San Diego, 649 P.2d 902, 909 (Cal. 1982) (en banc)","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(declining to sever portions of a statute where severance","paragraphs":["para_1355","para_1356"]},{"title":"Put another way, the district court must consider whether","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 43","paragraphs":["para_1359","para_1360"]},{"title":"Children’s Hosp. of Orange Cnty., 28 F.3d 1520, 1532 (9th","paragraphs":["para_1362"]},{"title":"The district court agreed with NetChoice that the Act’s","paragraphs":["para_1364","para_1365"]},{"title":"NetChoice’s evidence of the importance of the notice-and-","paragraphs":["para_1367","para_1368","para_1369","para_1370","para_1371","para_1372","para_1373","para_1374","para_1375"]},{"title":"Today, we find ourselves in much the same position as","paragraphs":["para_1377","para_1378","para_1379","para_1380","para_1381","para_1382"]},{"title":"To start, while NetChoice asserts that the CAADCA’s","paragraphs":["para_1384","para_1385","para_1386","para_1387"]},{"title":"Pol. Pracs. Comm’n., 863 P.2d 694, 698 (Cal. 1993) (en","paragraphs":["para_1389"]},{"title":"44 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Legislature v. Eu, 816 P.2d 1309, 1335 (Cal. 1991) (en","paragraphs":["para_1392"]},{"title":"NetChoice also fails to establish, at this preliminary","paragraphs":["para_1394","para_1395","para_1396","para_1397","para_1398","para_1399","para_1400","para_1401","para_1402"]},{"title":"Attorney General. Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.35(a). The","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"State may thus pursue compliance by enforcing both","paragraphs":["para_1405","para_1406","para_1407","para_1408"]},{"title":"90-day cure period affects whether provisions concerning","paragraphs":["para_1410","para_1411","para_1412"]},{"title":"Moreover, the district court overstates the import of the","paragraphs":["para_1414","para_1415","para_1416","para_1417","para_1418","para_1419"]},{"title":"But these revisions also included amendments to other","paragraphs":["para_1421","para_1422","para_1423"]},{"title":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 45","paragraphs":["para_1425","para_1426","para_1427","para_1428"]},{"title":"NetChoice does not demonstrate that the 90-day cure period","paragraphs":["para_1430"]},{"title":"On the other hand, the district court may have","paragraphs":["para_1432","para_1433","para_1434","para_1435","para_1436","para_1437","para_1438"]},{"title":"Mesa, 135 F.4th 645, 677 (9th Cir. 2025) (holding invalid","paragraphs":["para_1440","para_1441"]},{"title":"Nguyen, 222 Cal. App. 4th 1168, 1193 (2014) (looking to","paragraphs":["para_1443","para_1444","para_1445","para_1446","para_1447","para_1448","para_1449","para_1450"]},{"title":"Privacy & Consumer Prot. Rep.). The legislature may have","paragraphs":["para_1452","para_1453","para_1454","para_1455","para_1456"]},{"title":"46 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Accordingly, we vacate the district court’s determination","paragraphs":["para_1459","para_1460","para_1461"]},{"title":"CONCLUSION","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"For the foregoing reasons, we AFFIRM the district","paragraphs":["para_1464","para_1465"]},{"title":"(4) and 1798.99.31(b)(7), and VACATE the remainder of","paragraphs":["para_1467","para_1468"]},{"title":"10 We do not reach NetChoice’s alternative grounds for affirming the","paragraphs":["para_1470","para_1471"]}],"paragraphs":[{"text":"FOR PUBLICATION","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC,","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"Plaintiff - Appellee,","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"v.","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"ROB BONTA, IN HIS OFFICIAL","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"CAPACITY AS ATTORNEY GENERAL OF","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA,","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"Defendant - Appellant.","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"No. 25-2366","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"D.C. No.","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"5:22-cv-08861-","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"BLF","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"OPINION","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"Appeal from the United States District Court","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"for the Northern District of California","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"Beth Labson Freeman, District Judge, Presiding","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"Argued and Submitted January 14, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"Pasadena, California","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"Filed March 12, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"Before: MILAN D. SMITH, JR., MARK J. BENNETT,","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"and ANTHONY D. JOHNSTONE, Circuit Judges.","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"Opinion by Judge M. Smith, Jr.","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"2 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"SUMMARY*","paragraph_id":"para_26"},{"text":"First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"The panel affirmed in part and vacated in part the district","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"court’s preliminary injunction in an action brought by","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"NetChoice, a national trade association of online businesses,","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"challenging the California Age-Appropriate Design Code","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"Act (CAADCA), which was enacted to protect the privacy,","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"safety, and well-being of children when engaging with","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"online products and services that children are likely to","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"access.","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"In a prior appeal, this panel affirmed the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"preliminary injunction insofar as it prevented enforcement","paragraph_id":"para_37"},{"text":"of the CAADCA’s requirement that covered businesses","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"mitigate the risk that children are exposed to harmful","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"material online, and the other provisions that were not","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"severable from it. However, the panel vacated the majority","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"of the district court’s preliminary injunction order and","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"remanded for the district court to properly consider the facial","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"nature of NetChoice’s other First Amendment challenges","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"and to reconsider whether the unconstitutional portions of","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"the CAADCA were severable from its remaining provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"On remand, NetChoice sought a second preliminary","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"injunction. The district court preliminarily enjoined the","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"entire statute, and, in the alternative, seven individual","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"provisions challenged by NetChoice.","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"This appeal concerns the CAADCA’s coverage","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"definition, age estimation requirement, data use provisions,","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"* This summary constitutes no part of the opinion of the court. It has","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"been prepared by court staff for the convenience of the reader.","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 3","paragraph_id":"para_55"},{"text":"and dark patterns restrictions. The panel focused its analysis","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"on whether NetChoice was likely to succeed on the merits of","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"its facial challenges to the CAADCA as a whole and to its","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"individual provisions because the State did not meaningfully","paragraph_id":"para_59"},{"text":"contest the remaining preliminary injunction factors.","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"The panel held that NetChoice is not likely to succeed on","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"the merits of its facial challenge to the CAADCA’s coverage","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"definition, which consists of six separately enumerated","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"indicators enabling online businesses to determine whether","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"they are subject to the CAADCA. It was NetChoice’s burden","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"to develop a record that would allow the court to determine","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"the law’s full set of applications, cataloging what activities,","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"by what actors the law regulates. Because NetChoice did not","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"carry its burden, the panel vacated the preliminary injunction","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"with respect to the entire CAADCA.","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"The panel next held that NetChoice is not likely to","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"succeed on the merits of its facial challenge to the age","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"estimation requirement. On the record before it, the panel","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"could not say that the age estimation requirement facially","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"violates the First Amendment at all, much less in a","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"substantial majority of its applications. Because NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"could not succeed on this facial attack without a developed","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"record, the panel vacated the preliminary injunction as to the","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"age estimation requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"The panel affirmed the district court’s injunction with","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"respect to the data use and dark patterns restrictions on","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"vagueness grounds because the challenged provisions do not","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"clearly delineate the proscribed conduct.","paragraph_id":"para_83"},{"text":"Lastly, the panel vacated the district court’s order insofar","paragraph_id":"para_84"},{"text":"as it enjoined the CAADCA’s valid remainder on","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"severability grounds because, at this stage of the litigation,","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"the panel could not determine whether the notice-and-cure","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"4 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"provision is severable from the CAADCA’s remaining","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"The panel remanded to the district court for further","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"proceedings.","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"COUNSEL","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"David M. Gossett (argued) and Meenakshi Krishnan, Davis","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"Wright Tremaine LLP, Washington, D.C.; Ambika Kumar","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"and Bianca G. Chamusco, Davis Wright Tremaine LLP,","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"Seattle, Washington; Adam S. Sieff, Davis Wright Tremaine","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"LLP, Los Angeles, California; Robert Corn-Revere,","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression,","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"Washington, D.C.; for Plaintiff-Appellee.","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"Kristin Liska (argued), Deputy Attorney General; Anya M.","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"Binsacca, Supervising Deputy Attorney General; Thomas S.","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"Patterson, Senior Assistant Attorney General; Rob Bonta,","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"California Attorney General; Office of the California","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"Attorney General, San Francisco, California; for Defendant-","paragraph_id":"para_105"},{"text":"Appellant.","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"Ariel F. Johnson, Digital Smarts Law & Policy LLC, Shaker","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"Heights, Ohio, for Common Sense Media.","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"Jason Harrow, Gerstein Harrow LLP, Los Angeles,","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"California; Meetali Jain and Melodi Dinçer, Tech Justice","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"Law Project, Washington, D.C.; Mihir Kshirsagar, Center","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"for Information Technology Policy, Princeton, New Jersey;","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"for Amici Curiae Design Researchers and Practitioners.","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 5","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"Megan Iorio and Tom McBrien, Electronic Privacy","paragraph_id":"para_115"},{"text":"Information Center, Washington, D.C., for Amicus Curiae","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"Electronic Privacy Information Center.","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"Aaron D. Mackey, Adam Schwartz, and David Greene,","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"Electronic Frontier Foundation, San Francisco, California;","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"Samir Jain, Eric Null, and Kate Ruane, Center for","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"Democracy & Technology, Washington, D.C.; for Amici","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation, Center for","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"Democracy & Technology, Internet Archive, and","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"Wikimedia Foundation.","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"Anne M. Voigts, Pillsbury Winthrop Shaw Pittman LLP,","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"Palo Alto, California; Stephanie A. Joyce, Computer &","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"Communications Industry Association, Washington, D.C.;","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"for Amicus Curiae Computer & Communications Industry","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"Association.","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"Gabriel Rottman, Grayson Clary, and Mara Gassmann,","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, Washington,","paragraph_id":"para_131"},{"text":"D.C., for Amici Curiae the Reporters Committee for","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"Freedom of the Press, Advance Publications, Hearst","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"Corporation, The New York Times Company, Reuters, and","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"the Student Press Law Center.","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"Mark W. Brennan, J. Ryan Thompson, and Thomas B.","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"Veitch, Hogan Lovells US LLP, Washington, D.C.;","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"Lawrence Walters, Walters Law Group, Longwood, Florida;","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"Kathleen Farley, Chamber of Progress, McLean, Virginia;","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"for Amici Curiae Chamber of Progress and Woodhull","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"Freedom Foundation.","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"6 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"OPINION","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"M. SMITH, Circuit Judge:","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"NetChoice, LLC (NetChoice), a trade association of","paragraph_id":"para_145"},{"text":"online businesses, returns to our court with a renewed","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"challenge to the California Age-Appropriate Design Code","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"Act (CAADCA or Act), Cal. Civ. Code §§ 1798.99.28–","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"1798.99.40. Before the CAADCA went into effect,","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"NetChoice brought suit in the United States District Court","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"for the Northern District of California, challenging the Act","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"on constitutional and federal preemption grounds. The","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"district court agreed with NetChoice that the challenged","paragraph_id":"para_153"},{"text":"provisions likely violate the First Amendment and that they","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"were not severable from the remainder of the CAADCA.","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"The district therefore preliminarily enjoined the Act,","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"preventing it from going into effect. The State appealed that","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"ruling, and we vacated the majority of the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"preliminary injunction order. However, we affirmed the","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"injunction insofar as it prevented enforcement of the","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"CAADCA’s requirement that covered businesses mitigate","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"the risk that children are exposed to harmful material online,","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"Cal. Civ. Code §§ 1798.99.31(a)(1)–(2), and provisions not","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"grammatically severable from it. We remanded for the","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"district court to properly consider the facial nature of","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"NetChoice’s other First Amendment challenges and to","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"reconsider whether the unconstitutional portions of the","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"CAADCA were severable from its remaining provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":"On remand, NetChoice sought a second preliminary","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"injunction. The district court preliminarily enjoined the","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"entire statute, and, in the alternative, seven individual","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"provisions challenged by NetChoice. Apart from the data","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"use restrictions, id. § 1798.99.31(b)(1)–(4), and the dark","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 7","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"patterns restriction, id. § 1798.99.31(b)(7), we vacate the","paragraph_id":"para_175"},{"text":"district court’s preliminary injunction order. The district","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"court erroneously concluded that NetChoice met its burden","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"for a facial challenge to the CAADCA as a whole by way of","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"the statute’s coverage definition. For similar reasons, we","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"vacate the preliminary injunction as to the age estimation","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"requirement, id. § 1798.99.31(a)(5). The Supreme Court has","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"been clear, and our court has since emphasized, that facial","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"challengers must clear a high bar. See, e.g., Wash. State","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"Grange v. Wash. State Republican Party, 552 U.S. 442, 449–","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"50 (2008); Project Veritas v. Schmidt, 125 F.4th 929, 939–","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"40 (9th Cir. 2025) (en banc). NetChoice has been a party to","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"many such cases—several before our court and the Supreme","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"Court—and is presumably aware of the expectations for a","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"facial challenge. At the risk of repetition, we offer similar","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"guidance to NetChoice today.","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"We also vacate the district court’s order insofar as it","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"enjoined the CAADCA’s valid remainder on severability","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"grounds. At this stage of the litigation, we cannot conclude","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"that NetChoice is likely to succeed in showing that the","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"CAADCA’s remaining provisions are not volitionally","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"severable from its enjoined notice-and-cure provision, Cal.","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"Civ. Code § 1798.99.35(c)(2). We remand to the district","paragraph_id":"para_197"},{"text":"court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"LEGAL BACKGROUND","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"In 2022, the California legislature unanimously enacted","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"the CAADCA, Cal. Civ. Code §§ 1798.99.28–1798.99.40.","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"The Act’s stated purpose is to protect the “privacy, safety,","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"and well-being of children” when engaging with online","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"products and services that “children are likely to access.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.29. To that end, the CAADCA applies only to","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"those businesses that provide “an online service, product, or","paragraph_id":"para_206"},{"text":"8 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"feature likely to be accessed by children” under the age of","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"eighteen. Id. §§ 1798.99.30(b)(1), 1798.99.31(a)–(b). An","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"online service is “likely to be accessed by children” when “it","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"is reasonable to expect, based on [enumerated] indicators,","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"that the online service, product, or feature would be accessed","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"by children.” Id. § 1798.99.30(b)(4).","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"In service of its goals concerning children’s data privacy,","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"the CAADCA imposes certain affirmative obligations and","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"prohibitions on the businesses it regulates. For example, in","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"2024, this same panel of our court affirmed a preliminary","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"injunction as to the provision requiring covered online","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"businesses to create a Data Protection Impact Assessment","paragraph_id":"para_219"},{"text":"(DPIA) report, or a “systematic survey to assess and mitigate","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"risks that arise from the data management practices of","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"the business to children who are reasonably likely","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"to access the online service . . . that arises from the","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"provision of that online service[.]” Id. §§ 1798.99.30(b)(2),","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"1798.99.31(a)(1)(B); see NetChoice, LLC v. Bonta","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"(NetChoice I), 113 F.4th 1101, 1116–22 (9th Cir. 2024).","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"That requirement remains enjoined and is not at issue in this","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"appeal.","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"This appeal concerns the CAADCA’s coverage","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"definition, Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(A)–(F); age","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"estimation requirement, id. § 1798.99.31(a)(5); and data use","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"and dark patterns restrictions, id. §§ 1798.99.31(b)(1)–(4),","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"(7). The California Attorney General has authority to","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"enforce the CAADCA. Id. § 1798.99.35(a). Violators face","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"civil penalties of up to $2,500 per child for each negligent","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"violation and up to $7,500 for each intentional violation. See","paragraph_id":"para_236"},{"text":"id.","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"The Act previously included a safe-harbor provision that","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"allowed noncompliant businesses to cure an alleged","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 9","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"violation within 90 days of written notice from the Attorney","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"General of the alleged violation. Id. § 1798.99.35(c)(2). We","paragraph_id":"para_242"},{"text":"affirmed a preliminary injunction enjoining that notice-and-","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"cure provision in NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1125.","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"FACTUAL & PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"NetChoice is trade association whose members consist","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"of large technology companies like Amazon, Google, Meta,","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"and Netflix. See About Us, NetChoice,","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"https://netchoice.org/about/ (last visited Mar. 5, 2026). In","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"2022, before the CAADCA took effect, NetChoice brought","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"suit challenging the Act on constitutional and federal","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"preemption grounds. It also moved for a preliminary","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"injunction. The district court granted that motion and","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"enjoined the CAADCA in full, concluding that NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"was likely to succeed on the merits of at least one of its facial","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"theories under the First Amendment. NetChoice, LLC v.","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"Bonta, 692 F. Supp. 3d 924, 965–66 (N.D. Cal. 2023).","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"The State appealed. While that appeal was pending, the","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"United States Supreme Court decided Moody v. NetChoice,","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"LLC, 603 U.S. 707 (2024), where it clarified the standard for","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"a facial challenge under the First Amendment. We applied","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"the Moody standard in NetChoice I and determined that the","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"district court did not conduct the proper analysis for a First","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"Amendment facial challenge. See NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at","paragraph_id":"para_264"},{"text":"1108, 1123–24. We therefore vacated the majority of the","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"preliminary injunction and remanded to the district court for","paragraph_id":"para_266"},{"text":"further proceedings. Id. at 1108. However, we affirmed the","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"preliminary injunction with respect to the DPIA","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"requirement, concluding that it likely facially violates the","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"First Amendment. Id. We likewise affirmed the district","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"court’s decision to enjoin the enforcement of other","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"10 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"provisions not grammatically severable from that","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"requirement. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"On remand, NetChoice filed a first amended complaint","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"(FAC) and a second motion for a preliminary injunction.","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"The FAC asserted a new facial First Amendment challenge","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"to the CAADCA: that the Act’s coverage provision, making","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"the Act applicable to online businesses that are “likely to be","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"accessed by children,” is content based and fails strict","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"scrutiny, thus rendering the CAADCA’s substantive","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"provisions unconstitutional in every application. The FAC","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"also asserted as-applied challenges to the CAADCA.","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"NetChoice’s second preliminary injunction motion","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"advanced these newly pleaded theories as additional grounds","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"for enjoining the CAADCA’s enforcement.","paragraph_id":"para_286"},{"text":"Ruling on that motion, the district court agreed with","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"NetChoice that the coverage provision defining “likely to be","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"accessed by children” is content based and triggers First","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"Amendment scrutiny for the entire statute. The district court","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"then held that the CAADCA likely fails strict scrutiny","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"because it “applies to all online content likely to be accessed","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"by consumers under the age of 18, and imposes significant","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"burdens on the providers of that content,” and the State had","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"failed to show that the CAADCA is narrowly tailored, in part","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"because its “interest in protecting the privacy and well-being","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"of children” could be advanced “by vigorous enforcement of","paragraph_id":"para_297"},{"text":"existing, less restrictive regulations.”","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"Because, as the district court noted, some courts have","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"construed Moody to require analyzing facial challenges","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"provision-by-provision, the district court also addressed","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"NetChoice’s challenges to individual provisions of the","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"CAADCA. It first concluded that all the CAADCA’s","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"“[p]rovisions are subject to strict scrutiny because of the","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 11","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"content-based coverage definition.” The district court then","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"determined that NetChoice was not likely to succeed on its","paragraph_id":"para_307"},{"text":"facial First Amendment challenge to the data use restrictions","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"or the dark patterns restriction but that NetChoice was likely","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"to succeed on its First Amendment challenge to the age","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"estimation requirement. However, the district court","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"concluded that NetChoice was likely to succeed on its","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"vagueness challenges to the data use restrictions and dark","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"patterns restriction but not to the age estimation requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"NetChoice also challenged, and the district court enjoined,","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"the CAADCA’s policy enforcement requirement, Cal. Civ.","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"Code § 1798.99.31(a)(9). Next, the district court turned to","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"severability and held that no part of the CAADCA was","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"volitionally separable from the enjoined notice-and-cure","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"provision.","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"The district court then addressed NetChoice’s claims that","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"the CAADCA is preempted by Section 230 of the","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"Communications Decency Act (Section 230), 47 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"§ 230(c), preempted by the Children’s Online Privacy","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"Protection Act (COPPA), 15 U.S.C. §§ 6501–06, and","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"facially invalid under the Dormant Commerce Clause. In","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"part because the parties dedicated insufficient briefing on","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"these issues, and based on the record before it, the district","paragraph_id":"para_328"},{"text":"court concluded that NetChoice was not likely to succeed on","paragraph_id":"para_329"},{"text":"the merits of any of these claims. Similarly, because","paragraph_id":"para_330"},{"text":"NetChoice had “devote[d] a single sentence of its","paragraph_id":"para_331"},{"text":"[preliminary injunction] motion to its as-applied claims” and","paragraph_id":"para_332"},{"text":"did not address the factors required for an as-applied","paragraph_id":"para_333"},{"text":"12 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_334"},{"text":"challenge, the district court denied NetChoice’s motion on","paragraph_id":"para_335"},{"text":"that ground.1","paragraph_id":"para_336"},{"text":"Because the district court concluded that NetChoice met","paragraph_id":"para_337"},{"text":"the remaining preliminary injunction factors on its facial","paragraph_id":"para_338"},{"text":"claim as to the coverage definition, on severability grounds,","paragraph_id":"para_339"},{"text":"and on some of its challenges to the Act’s individual","paragraph_id":"para_340"},{"text":"provisions, the district court granted NetChoice’s motion for","paragraph_id":"para_341"},{"text":"a preliminary injunction and enjoined the CAADCA in its","paragraph_id":"para_342"},{"text":"entirety. The State timely appealed.","paragraph_id":"para_343"},{"text":"JURISDICTION & STANDARD OF REVIEW","paragraph_id":"para_344"},{"text":"We have jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1292(a)(1).","paragraph_id":"para_345"},{"text":"We “review the district court’s decision to grant a","paragraph_id":"para_346"},{"text":"preliminary injunction for abuse of discretion.” Tucson v.","paragraph_id":"para_347"},{"text":"City of Seattle, 91 F.4th 1318, 1324 (9th Cir. 2024) (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_348"},{"text":"Daniels Sharpsmart, Inc. v. Smith, 889 F.3d 608, 613 (9th","paragraph_id":"para_349"},{"text":"Cir. 2018)). The district court “‘abuses its discretion if it","paragraph_id":"para_350"},{"text":"rests its decision on an erroneous legal standard or on clearly","paragraph_id":"para_351"},{"text":"erroneous factual findings.’” Id. (quoting Am. Beverage","paragraph_id":"para_352"},{"text":"Ass’n v. City & Cnty. of San Francisco, 916 F.3d 749, 754","paragraph_id":"para_353"},{"text":"(9th Cir. 2019) (en banc) (citation modified)). “A district","paragraph_id":"para_354"},{"text":"court’s decision is based on an erroneous legal standard if:","paragraph_id":"para_355"},{"text":"(1) the court did not employ the appropriate legal standards","paragraph_id":"para_356"},{"text":"that govern the issuance of a preliminary injunction; or (2) in","paragraph_id":"para_357"},{"text":"applying the appropriate standards, the court","paragraph_id":"para_358"},{"text":"misapprehended the law with respect to the underlying","paragraph_id":"para_359"},{"text":"issues in the litigation.” Cal. Chamber of Com. v. Council","paragraph_id":"para_360"},{"text":"for Educ. & Rsch. on Toxics, 29 F.4th 468, 475 (9th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_361"},{"text":"1 NetChoice’s as-applied claims and its challenge to the CAADCA’s","paragraph_id":"para_362"},{"text":"policy enforcement requirement, Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(a)(9), are","paragraph_id":"para_363"},{"text":"not at issue in this appeal.","paragraph_id":"para_364"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 13","paragraph_id":"para_365"},{"text":"2022) (quoting Negrete v. Allianz Life Ins. Co. of N. Am.,","paragraph_id":"para_366"},{"text":"523 F.3d 1091, 1096 (9th Cir. 2008) (citation modified)).","paragraph_id":"para_367"},{"text":"ANALYSIS","paragraph_id":"para_368"},{"text":"To obtain a preliminary injunction, NetChoice must","paragraph_id":"para_369"},{"text":"show that (1) it is likely to succeed on the merits; (2) it is","paragraph_id":"para_370"},{"text":"likely to suffer irreparable harm in the absence of","paragraph_id":"para_371"},{"text":"preliminary relief; (3) the balance of equities tips in its favor;","paragraph_id":"para_372"},{"text":"and (4) an injunction is in the public interest. See Winter v.","paragraph_id":"para_373"},{"text":"Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc., 555 U.S. 7, 20 (2008). The","paragraph_id":"para_374"},{"text":"party seeking a preliminary injunction bears the burden of","paragraph_id":"para_375"},{"text":"proving each element. See Klein v. City of San Clemente,","paragraph_id":"para_376"},{"text":"584 F.3d 1196, 1201 (9th Cir. 2009). As in its last round","paragraph_id":"para_377"},{"text":"before our panel, the State does not meaningfully contest the","paragraph_id":"para_378"},{"text":"latter three preliminary injunction factors. See NetChoice I,","paragraph_id":"para_379"},{"text":"113 F.4th at 1115. We therefore focus our analysis on","paragraph_id":"para_380"},{"text":"whether NetChoice is likely to succeed on the merits of its","paragraph_id":"para_381"},{"text":"facial challenges to the CAADCA as a whole and to its","paragraph_id":"para_382"},{"text":"individual provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_383"},{"text":"I. NetChoice is not likely to succeed on the merits of","paragraph_id":"para_384"},{"text":"its facial challenge to the CAADCA’s coverage","paragraph_id":"para_385"},{"text":"definition.","paragraph_id":"para_386"},{"text":"Under the First Amendment, “[c]ontent-based laws—","paragraph_id":"para_387"},{"text":"those that target speech based on its communicative","paragraph_id":"para_388"},{"text":"content—are presumptively unconstitutional and may be","paragraph_id":"para_389"},{"text":"justified only if the government proves that they are","paragraph_id":"para_390"},{"text":"narrowly tailored to serve compelling state interests.” Reed","paragraph_id":"para_391"},{"text":"v. Town of Gilbert, 576 U.S. 155, 163 (2015). In turn,","paragraph_id":"para_392"},{"text":"“[g]overnment regulation of speech is content based if a law","paragraph_id":"para_393"},{"text":"applies to particular speech because of the topic discussed or","paragraph_id":"para_394"},{"text":"the idea or message expressed.” Id.; see also Sorrell v. IMS","paragraph_id":"para_395"},{"text":"Health Inc., 564 U.S. 552, 566 (2011). Courts may","paragraph_id":"para_396"},{"text":"determine whether a regulation is content based by","paragraph_id":"para_397"},{"text":"14 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_398"},{"text":"considering whether it “draws distinctions based on the","paragraph_id":"para_399"},{"text":"message a speaker conveys” “on its face.” Reed, 576 U.S.","paragraph_id":"para_400"},{"text":"at 163. Even “subtle . . . distinctions” that “defin[e]","paragraph_id":"para_401"},{"text":"regulated speech by its function or purpose” are “subject to","paragraph_id":"para_402"},{"text":"strict scrutiny.” Id. at 163–64.","paragraph_id":"para_403"},{"text":"The Supreme Court has also recognized “a separate and","paragraph_id":"para_404"},{"text":"additional category of laws that, though facially content","paragraph_id":"para_405"},{"text":"neutral, will be considered content-based regulations of","paragraph_id":"para_406"},{"text":"speech: laws that cannot be justified without reference to the","paragraph_id":"para_407"},{"text":"content of the regulated speech.” Id. at 164 (citation","paragraph_id":"para_408"},{"text":"modified). “Those laws, like those that are content based on","paragraph_id":"para_409"},{"text":"their face, must also satisfy strict scrutiny.” Id.; see also","paragraph_id":"para_410"},{"text":"Sorrell, 564 U.S. at 566 (“Even if the hypothetical measure","paragraph_id":"para_411"},{"text":"on its face appeared neutral as to content and speaker, its","paragraph_id":"para_412"},{"text":"purpose to suppress speech and its unjustified burdens on","paragraph_id":"para_413"},{"text":"expression would render it unconstitutional.”).","paragraph_id":"para_414"},{"text":"Our First Amendment analysis proceeds in three steps.","paragraph_id":"para_415"},{"text":"“The first step . . . is to determine whether the regulation","paragraph_id":"para_416"},{"text":"implicates protected expression.” Recycle for Change v.","paragraph_id":"para_417"},{"text":"City of Oakland, 856 F.3d 666, 669 (9th Cir. 2017). Thus,","paragraph_id":"para_418"},{"text":"“[t]he threshold question is whether conduct with a","paragraph_id":"para_419"},{"text":"‘significant expressive element’ drew the legal remedy or the","paragraph_id":"para_420"},{"text":"[statute] has the inevitable effect of ‘singling out those","paragraph_id":"para_421"},{"text":"engaged in expressive activity.’” Int’l Franchise Ass’n, Inc.","paragraph_id":"para_422"},{"text":"v. City of Seattle, 803 F.3d 389, 408 (9th Cir. 2015) (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_423"},{"text":"Arcara v. Cloud Books, Inc., 478 U.S. 697, 706–07 (1986)).","paragraph_id":"para_424"},{"text":"Next, we ask “whether the [statute] is content based or","paragraph_id":"para_425"},{"text":"content neutral.” Recycle for Change, 856 F.3d at 669. If","paragraph_id":"para_426"},{"text":"the statute is content based, we must determine whether it","paragraph_id":"para_427"},{"text":"withstands strict scrutiny. Id. If it is content neutral, the","paragraph_id":"para_428"},{"text":"statute need only satisfy intermediate scrutiny. See Project","paragraph_id":"para_429"},{"text":"Veritas, 125 F.4th at 947.","paragraph_id":"para_430"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 15","paragraph_id":"para_431"},{"text":"But that is not all: NetChoice must also satisfy the","paragraph_id":"para_432"},{"text":"requirements for a facial challenge as to each challenged","paragraph_id":"para_433"},{"text":"provision. See Moody, 603 U.S. at 725–26. In Moody, the","paragraph_id":"para_434"},{"text":"Supreme Court explained that district courts evaluating a","paragraph_id":"para_435"},{"text":"facial challenge under the First Amendment must assess","paragraph_id":"para_436"},{"text":"“whether a substantial number of [the law’s] applications are","paragraph_id":"para_437"},{"text":"unconstitutional, judged in relation to the statute’s plainly","paragraph_id":"para_438"},{"text":"legitimate sweep.” 603 U.S. at 723 (alterations in original)","paragraph_id":"para_439"},{"text":"(citation modified) (quoting Ams. for Prosperity Found. v.","paragraph_id":"para_440"},{"text":"Bonta, 594 U.S. 595, 615 (2021)). That analysis proceeds in","paragraph_id":"para_441"},{"text":"two steps of its own. First, courts must “assess the state","paragraph_id":"para_442"},{"text":"law[’s] scope” by asking “[w]hat activities, by what actors,","paragraph_id":"para_443"},{"text":"do the laws prohibit or otherwise regulate?” Id. at 724.","paragraph_id":"para_444"},{"text":"Second, courts must “decide which of the law[’s]","paragraph_id":"para_445"},{"text":"applications violate the First Amendment, and . . . measure","paragraph_id":"para_446"},{"text":"them against the rest.” Id. at 725. A facial challenge thus","paragraph_id":"para_447"},{"text":"“demands record development on third-party speech and the","paragraph_id":"para_448"},{"text":"full scope of a law’s potential applications.” NetChoice,","paragraph_id":"para_449"},{"text":"LLC v. Bonta (NetChoice SB 976), 152 F.4th 1002, 1013 (9th","paragraph_id":"para_450"},{"text":"Cir. 2025). Here, “[i]t is NetChoice’s burden to make those","paragraph_id":"para_451"},{"text":"showings.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_452"},{"text":"A. NetChoice does not carry its burden for its","paragraph_id":"para_453"},{"text":"facial challenge to the coverage definition","paragraph_id":"para_454"},{"text":"under Moody.","paragraph_id":"para_455"},{"text":"The CAADCA applies to any “business that provides an","paragraph_id":"para_456"},{"text":"online service, product, or feature likely to be accessed by","paragraph_id":"para_457"},{"text":"children.” Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(a). 2 The Act","paragraph_id":"para_458"},{"text":"2 For terms not expressly defined in the CAADCA, the Act incorporates","paragraph_id":"para_459"},{"text":"the definitions provided by the California Consumer Privacy Act","paragraph_id":"para_460"},{"text":"(CCPA), Cal. Civ. Code §§ 1798.100–1798.199.100. See id.","paragraph_id":"para_461"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.30(a). A “business” is a legal, for-profit entity that “collects","paragraph_id":"para_462"},{"text":"consumers’ personal information” and “determines the purposes and","paragraph_id":"para_463"},{"text":"16 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_464"},{"text":"defines “likely to be accessed by children” to mean that “it","paragraph_id":"para_465"},{"text":"is reasonable to expect, based on [enumerated] indicators,","paragraph_id":"para_466"},{"text":"that the online service, product, or feature would be accessed","paragraph_id":"para_467"},{"text":"by children.” Id. § 1798.99.30(b)(4). The definition relies","paragraph_id":"para_468"},{"text":"on application of the following indicators:","paragraph_id":"para_469"},{"text":"(A) The online service, product, or feature is","paragraph_id":"para_470"},{"text":"directed to children as defined by the","paragraph_id":"para_471"},{"text":"Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act","paragraph_id":"para_472"},{"text":"(15 U.S.C. Sec. 6501 et seq.).","paragraph_id":"para_473"},{"text":"(B) The online service, product, or feature is","paragraph_id":"para_474"},{"text":"determined, based on competent and","paragraph_id":"para_475"},{"text":"reliable evidence regarding audience","paragraph_id":"para_476"},{"text":"composition, to be routinely accessed by","paragraph_id":"para_477"},{"text":"a significant number of children.","paragraph_id":"para_478"},{"text":"(C) An online service, product, or feature","paragraph_id":"para_479"},{"text":"with advertisements marketed to","paragraph_id":"para_480"},{"text":"children.","paragraph_id":"para_481"},{"text":"(D) An online service, product, or feature that","paragraph_id":"para_482"},{"text":"is substantially similar or the same as an","paragraph_id":"para_483"},{"text":"online service, product, or feature subject","paragraph_id":"para_484"},{"text":"to subparagraph (B).","paragraph_id":"para_485"},{"text":"(E) An online service, product, or feature that","paragraph_id":"para_486"},{"text":"has design elements that are known to be","paragraph_id":"para_487"},{"text":"of interest to children, including, but not","paragraph_id":"para_488"},{"text":"limited to, games, cartoons, music, and","paragraph_id":"para_489"},{"text":"celebrities who appeal to children.","paragraph_id":"para_490"},{"text":"means of the processing of consumers’ personal information,” “that does","paragraph_id":"para_491"},{"text":"business in the State of California,” and that meets a certain threshold for","paragraph_id":"para_492"},{"text":"revenue or for the number of transactions involving personal","paragraph_id":"para_493"},{"text":"information. See id. §§ 1798.99.30(a), 1798.140(d).","paragraph_id":"para_494"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 17","paragraph_id":"para_495"},{"text":"(F) A significant amount of the audience of","paragraph_id":"para_496"},{"text":"the online service, product, or feature is","paragraph_id":"para_497"},{"text":"determined, based on internal company","paragraph_id":"para_498"},{"text":"research, to be children.","paragraph_id":"para_499"},{"text":"Id.","paragraph_id":"para_500"},{"text":"On appeal, the State argues that this coverage definition","paragraph_id":"para_501"},{"text":"does not regulate protected speech; in the State’s view, “it","paragraph_id":"para_502"},{"text":"does not regulate anything” but rather “clarifies which","paragraph_id":"para_503"},{"text":"businesses are subject to the Act’s substantive regulatory","paragraph_id":"para_504"},{"text":"provisions.” NetChoice contends, and the district court","paragraph_id":"para_505"},{"text":"concluded, that by virtue of the coverage definition, the Act","paragraph_id":"para_506"},{"text":"“burdens speech based on content in every application.”","paragraph_id":"para_507"},{"text":"The district court held that “[a]pplication of [the","paragraph_id":"para_508"},{"text":"enumerated indicators] to determine whether a particular","paragraph_id":"para_509"},{"text":"business’s online offerings are likely to be accessed by","paragraph_id":"para_510"},{"text":"children unavoidably requires an evaluation of content.”","paragraph_id":"para_511"},{"text":"The district court reasoned that the coverage definition","paragraph_id":"para_512"},{"text":"“single[s] out particular subject matter, specifically online","paragraph_id":"para_513"},{"text":"content that is likely to be accessed by children” and","paragraph_id":"para_514"},{"text":"observed that “[a] business will be treated differently under","paragraph_id":"para_515"},{"text":"the CAADCA if it provides online services, products, or","paragraph_id":"para_516"},{"text":"features with design elements that are known to be of interest","paragraph_id":"para_517"},{"text":"to children, such as games, cartoons, music, or other content","paragraph_id":"para_518"},{"text":"that appeals to children, or the business knows that a","paragraph_id":"para_519"},{"text":"significant portion of its audience is children.” And because","paragraph_id":"para_520"},{"text":"it determined any application of the Act’s substantive","paragraph_id":"para_521"},{"text":"provisions “that do not implicate protected speech” “will be","paragraph_id":"para_522"},{"text":"substantially outweighed by the applications of the","paragraph_id":"para_523"},{"text":"[substantive provisions] that do implicate protected speech,”","paragraph_id":"para_524"},{"text":"the district court concluded that NetChoice met the standard","paragraph_id":"para_525"},{"text":"for a facial challenge set forth in Moody.","paragraph_id":"para_526"},{"text":"18 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_527"},{"text":"We disagree. Unlike the enjoined DPIA report","paragraph_id":"para_528"},{"text":"requirement, which “raise[d] the same First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_529"},{"text":"issues” “in every application to a covered business,”","paragraph_id":"para_530"},{"text":"NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1116, the coverage definition does","paragraph_id":"para_531"},{"text":"not.3 First, the State persuasively argues that whether “it is","paragraph_id":"para_532"},{"text":"reasonable to expect” that a business’s “online service,","paragraph_id":"para_533"},{"text":"product, or feature would be accessed by children,” Cal. Civ.","paragraph_id":"para_534"},{"text":"Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4), “says nothing about the nature of","paragraph_id":"para_535"},{"text":"the business providing that service, product, or feature.”","paragraph_id":"para_536"},{"text":"Indeed, as the State proffers, children “are capable of using","paragraph_id":"para_537"},{"text":"ride sharing service[s] like Lyft or Waymo, electronic","paragraph_id":"para_538"},{"text":"ticketing services such as StubHub or Ticketmaster,","paragraph_id":"para_539"},{"text":"financial transaction services such as Paypal or Venmo,","paragraph_id":"para_540"},{"text":"fitness products such as NFL Play 60 or Peloton, health-","paragraph_id":"para_541"},{"text":"related services such as iHealth, or education-related","paragraph_id":"para_542"},{"text":"products such as Wolfram Mathematica.” The CAADCA’s","paragraph_id":"para_543"},{"text":"substantive requirements would “appl[y] evenhandedly” to","paragraph_id":"para_544"},{"text":"any of these businesses if they are likely to be accessed by","paragraph_id":"para_545"},{"text":"children, regardless of the content available through their","paragraph_id":"para_546"},{"text":"online service. Heffron v. Int’l Soc’y for Krishna","paragraph_id":"para_547"},{"text":"Consciousness, Inc., 452 U.S. 640, 649 (1981); see also Hill","paragraph_id":"para_548"},{"text":"v. Colorado, 530 U.S. 703, 723 (2000) (finding regulation","paragraph_id":"para_549"},{"text":"that “clearly does not prohibit . . . either a particular","paragraph_id":"para_550"},{"text":"viewpoint or any subject matter that may be discussed by a","paragraph_id":"para_551"},{"text":"speaker” content neutral and observing that “the statute","paragraph_id":"para_552"},{"text":"3 To the extent NetChoice argues that the coverage definition raises the","paragraph_id":"para_553"},{"text":"same First Amendment issues in every application because it compels","paragraph_id":"para_554"},{"text":"every covered business to comply with the CAADCA’s substantive","paragraph_id":"para_555"},{"text":"provisions, that argument fails as a challenge to the coverage definition","paragraph_id":"para_556"},{"text":"itself. Such a challenge is more appropriately raised against the","paragraph_id":"para_557"},{"text":"substantive provisions with which NetChoice finds issue—as it did in","paragraph_id":"para_558"},{"text":"the previous appeal with respect to the DPIA report requirement and as","paragraph_id":"para_559"},{"text":"it does in this appeal with respect to the age estimation requirement, data","paragraph_id":"para_560"},{"text":"use restrictions, and dark patterns restriction, discussed below.","paragraph_id":"para_561"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 19","paragraph_id":"para_562"},{"text":"applies equally to used car salesmen, animal rights activists,","paragraph_id":"para_563"},{"text":"fundraisers, environmentalists, and missionaries”).","paragraph_id":"para_564"},{"text":"The CAADCA’s coverage definition consists of six","paragraph_id":"para_565"},{"text":"separately enumerated indicators enabling online businesses","paragraph_id":"para_566"},{"text":"to determine whether or not they are subject to the Act.","paragraph_id":"para_567"},{"text":"Because each indicator demands different inquiries of online","paragraph_id":"para_568"},{"text":"businesses, the coverage definition cannot apply to every","paragraph_id":"para_569"},{"text":"online business in the same way. For example, an online","paragraph_id":"para_570"},{"text":"business is “likely to be accessed by children” pursuant to","paragraph_id":"para_571"},{"text":"indicator (B) where it “is determined, based on competent","paragraph_id":"para_572"},{"text":"and reliable evidence regarding audience composition, to be","paragraph_id":"para_573"},{"text":"routinely accessed by a significant number of children.” Cal.","paragraph_id":"para_574"},{"text":"Civ. Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(B). Similarly, a business","paragraph_id":"para_575"},{"text":"meets the coverage definition under indicator (F) where “[a]","paragraph_id":"para_576"},{"text":"significant amount of the audience of the online service,","paragraph_id":"para_577"},{"text":"product, or feature is determined, based on internal company","paragraph_id":"para_578"},{"text":"research, to be children.” Id. § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(F).","paragraph_id":"para_579"},{"text":"Determining whether a service is “routinely accessed by a","paragraph_id":"para_580"},{"text":"significant number of children” requires looking to","paragraph_id":"para_581"},{"text":"demographic data concerning online traffic to the business’s","paragraph_id":"para_582"},{"text":"product—that is data received by the business, not content","paragraph_id":"para_583"},{"text":"the business publishes. See id. § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(B). The","paragraph_id":"para_584"},{"text":"record establishes—and NetChoice nowhere denies—that","paragraph_id":"para_585"},{"text":"frequently, this is data that online businesses already have.","paragraph_id":"para_586"},{"text":"See also NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at 1022 (concluding","paragraph_id":"para_587"},{"text":"that NetChoice’s facial challenge to age-verification","paragraph_id":"para_588"},{"text":"provisions in California’s Protecting Our Kids from Social","paragraph_id":"para_589"},{"text":"Media Addiction Act is unripe in part because “NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_590"},{"text":"members can verify users’ age in the background without","paragraph_id":"para_591"},{"text":"requiring user input”). The same is true of determining","paragraph_id":"para_592"},{"text":"20 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_593"},{"text":"whether “[a] significant amount of the audience” is","paragraph_id":"para_594"},{"text":"“children.” Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(F).4","paragraph_id":"para_595"},{"text":"However, an online business also comes within the","paragraph_id":"para_596"},{"text":"coverage definition if it provides “advertisements marketed","paragraph_id":"para_597"},{"text":"to children” or has “design elements that are known to be of","paragraph_id":"para_598"},{"text":"interest to children, including, but not limited to, games,","paragraph_id":"para_599"},{"text":"cartoons, music, and celebrities who appeal to children.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_600"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.30(b)(4)(C), (E). These indicators may indeed","paragraph_id":"para_601"},{"text":"require online businesses to review the content that they","paragraph_id":"para_602"},{"text":"publish to determine whether it is directed at or otherwise","paragraph_id":"para_603"},{"text":"appealing to children. But that is a different question","paragraph_id":"para_604"},{"text":"altogether from whether a significant amount of a business’s","paragraph_id":"para_605"},{"text":"online patrons are children. A business that satisfies the","paragraph_id":"para_606"},{"text":"“significant amount” test would have no need to evaluate","paragraph_id":"para_607"},{"text":"whether its product is “directed to children,” “marketed to","paragraph_id":"para_608"},{"text":"children,” or “has design elements that are known to be of","paragraph_id":"para_609"},{"text":"interest to children” to determine if the CAADCA applies to","paragraph_id":"para_610"},{"text":"it. Id. § 1798.99.30(b)(4).","paragraph_id":"para_611"},{"text":"Nowhere does the definition require that all six","paragraph_id":"para_612"},{"text":"indicators must be present for the Act to apply, or even that","paragraph_id":"para_613"},{"text":"a combination of several factors is required.5 See id. The","paragraph_id":"para_614"},{"text":"content and structure of the provision—listing six separate","paragraph_id":"para_615"},{"text":"possible indicators—confirms this reading. For example,","paragraph_id":"para_616"},{"text":"4 NetChoice asserts that “audience composition” “turn[s] in significant","paragraph_id":"para_617"},{"text":"measure on the service’s content,” but it offers no legal authority or","paragraph_id":"para_618"},{"text":"factual support for that contention. On the contrary, as to indicators (B)","paragraph_id":"para_619"},{"text":"and (F), “[t]he plain language of the statute dictates that its application","paragraph_id":"para_620"},{"text":"turns on” whether the online service is accessed or used by a significant","paragraph_id":"para_621"},{"text":"number of children, “and not the subject matter” of the business’s","paragraph_id":"para_622"},{"text":"content, to the extent the business is even a publisher. Project Veritas,","paragraph_id":"para_623"},{"text":"125 F.4th at 951.","paragraph_id":"para_624"},{"text":"5 In its answering brief, NetChoice itself reads the coverage indicators as","paragraph_id":"para_625"},{"text":"independently sufficient.","paragraph_id":"para_626"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 21","paragraph_id":"para_627"},{"text":"indicator (D) defines coverage by reference to businesses","paragraph_id":"para_628"},{"text":"“substantially similar” to those satisfying indicator (B)","paragraph_id":"para_629"},{"text":"alone, thus creating a derivative category that would be","paragraph_id":"para_630"},{"text":"superfluous unless indicator (B) is independently sufficient.","paragraph_id":"para_631"},{"text":"Id. § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(B), (D). Indicators (B) and (F)","paragraph_id":"para_632"},{"text":"likewise address the same underlying question—whether","paragraph_id":"para_633"},{"text":"children make up a significant share of a platform’s","paragraph_id":"para_634"},{"text":"audience—but through different evidentiary sources. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_635"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.30(b)(4)(B), (F). Reading them as cumulative","paragraph_id":"para_636"},{"text":"would allow a business with, for example, substantial","paragraph_id":"para_637"},{"text":"company evidence of child users to escape coverage simply","paragraph_id":"para_638"},{"text":"by contesting external demographic data, an absurd statutory","paragraph_id":"para_639"},{"text":"result. And indicator (A) incorporates COPPA’s “directed to","paragraph_id":"para_640"},{"text":"children” standard, see 15 U.S.C. § 6501(10), which","paragraph_id":"para_641"},{"text":"overlaps in part with indicators (C) and (E), see Cal. Civ.","paragraph_id":"para_642"},{"text":"Code § 1798.99.30(b)(4)(A), (C), (E); if all six indicators","paragraph_id":"para_643"},{"text":"were required, satisfying (A) alone could never","paragraph_id":"para_644"},{"text":"independently trigger coverage, rendering it surplusage. The","paragraph_id":"para_645"},{"text":"most natural reading of the provision is that application of","paragraph_id":"para_646"},{"text":"any one indicator is sufficient for the business to come","paragraph_id":"para_647"},{"text":"within the CAADCA’s scope. And because the question that","paragraph_id":"para_648"},{"text":"each indicator requires an online business to ask demands a","paragraph_id":"para_649"},{"text":"different answer, we cannot say that the coverage definition","paragraph_id":"para_650"},{"text":"likely raises the same First Amendment issues in every","paragraph_id":"para_651"},{"text":"possible application.","paragraph_id":"para_652"},{"text":"To illustrate the point, recall the State’s examples of","paragraph_id":"para_653"},{"text":"online services, including ride sharing services, electronic","paragraph_id":"para_654"},{"text":"ticketing services, and financial transaction services, all of","paragraph_id":"para_655"},{"text":"which may be subject to the CAADCA pursuant to","paragraph_id":"para_656"},{"text":"indicators (B) or (F) but which may not otherwise be directed","paragraph_id":"para_657"},{"text":"at or marketed to children. NetChoice does not squarely","paragraph_id":"para_658"},{"text":"address any of these examples. Instead, NetChoice responds","paragraph_id":"para_659"},{"text":"that “the Act does not ask whether minors ‘are capable of","paragraph_id":"para_660"},{"text":"22 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_661"},{"text":"using’ some service” but rather whether the service is likely","paragraph_id":"para_662"},{"text":"to be accessed by minors “pursuant to content-based","paragraph_id":"para_663"},{"text":"indicia.” But NetChoice misreads the coverage definition—","paragraph_id":"para_664"},{"text":"which, as explained, does not compel online businesses to","paragraph_id":"para_665"},{"text":"apply any potentially content based indicia if the business is","paragraph_id":"para_666"},{"text":"routinely accessed by a significant number of children.","paragraph_id":"para_667"},{"text":"It may well be the case that a significant number of","paragraph_id":"para_668"},{"text":"children do not routinely access ride sharing services,","paragraph_id":"para_669"},{"text":"electronic ticketing services, financial transaction services,","paragraph_id":"para_670"},{"text":"or any other online service the State identified. But the","paragraph_id":"para_671"},{"text":"district court made no factual findings on those questions,","paragraph_id":"para_672"},{"text":"and that information is not otherwise in the record. “The","paragraph_id":"para_673"},{"text":"First Amendment analysis is fact intensive and will surely","paragraph_id":"para_674"},{"text":"vary from platform to platform.” NetChoice SB 976, 152","paragraph_id":"para_675"},{"text":"F.4th at 1014 (citation modified). And it is NetChoice’s","paragraph_id":"para_676"},{"text":"burden to establish that factual record so that the district","paragraph_id":"para_677"},{"text":"court could have properly considered every conceivable","paragraph_id":"para_678"},{"text":"application of the CAADCA’s coverage definition.","paragraph_id":"para_679"},{"text":"NetChoice’s focus on applications of the CAADCA that","paragraph_id":"para_680"},{"text":"may implicate protected expression does not relieve it from","paragraph_id":"para_681"},{"text":"the burden to demonstrate that these applications","paragraph_id":"para_682"},{"text":"“substantially outweigh” applications that do not, as Moody","paragraph_id":"para_683"},{"text":"requires. NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1115. As we cautioned","paragraph_id":"para_684"},{"text":"in NetChoice I, “the focus on whether and how these","paragraph_id":"para_685"},{"text":"provisions may impact” “social media companies,” “without","paragraph_id":"para_686"},{"text":"considering any other potential applications, treats","paragraph_id":"para_687"},{"text":"NetChoice’s challenges ‘more like as-applied claims than","paragraph_id":"para_688"},{"text":"like facial ones.’” Id. at 1123 (quoting Moody, 603 U.S. at","paragraph_id":"para_689"},{"text":"724). “[N]either parties nor courts can disregard the","paragraph_id":"para_690"},{"text":"requisite inquiry into how a law works in all of its","paragraph_id":"para_691"},{"text":"applications.” Moody, 603 U.S. at 744.","paragraph_id":"para_692"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 23","paragraph_id":"para_693"},{"text":"NetChoice makes the same critical error here. It focuses","paragraph_id":"para_694"},{"text":"only on “possible applications” of the coverage definition to","paragraph_id":"para_695"},{"text":"companies that publish content, “a subset of the businesses","paragraph_id":"para_696"},{"text":"covered by the CAADCA,” and “speculate[s] about how that","paragraph_id":"para_697"},{"text":"subset of applications could ultimately have a substantial","paragraph_id":"para_698"},{"text":"effect on those companies’” protected expression.","paragraph_id":"para_699"},{"text":"NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1123. But in a facial challenge,","paragraph_id":"para_700"},{"text":"NetChoice may not “treat[] the law[] as having certain","paragraph_id":"para_701"},{"text":"heartland applications, and mostly confine[] the[] battle to","paragraph_id":"para_702"},{"text":"that terrain.” Moody, 603 U.S. at 724. For similar reasons,","paragraph_id":"para_703"},{"text":"NetChoice’s reliance on several cases where district courts","paragraph_id":"para_704"},{"text":"have found that a statute’s gateway definition triggers First","paragraph_id":"para_705"},{"text":"Amendment review and subjects the entire statute to strict","paragraph_id":"para_706"},{"text":"scrutiny is misplaced.6 In each of these cases, the district","paragraph_id":"para_707"},{"text":"court interpreted statutes specifically targeting social media","paragraph_id":"para_708"},{"text":"companies, and in each, the court found that the central","paragraph_id":"para_709"},{"text":"coverage definition facially distinguished between types of","paragraph_id":"para_710"},{"text":"speech. 7 These cases largely did not assess coverage","paragraph_id":"para_711"},{"text":"6 See NetChoice, LLC v. Carr, 789 F. Supp. 3d 1200 (N.D. Ga. 2025);","paragraph_id":"para_712"},{"text":"NetChoice, LLC v. Fitch, 787 F. Supp. 3d 262 (S.D. Miss. 2025);","paragraph_id":"para_713"},{"text":"NetChoice, LLC v. Yost, 778 F. Supp. 3d 923, 953‒54 (S.D. Ohio 2025);","paragraph_id":"para_714"},{"text":"SEAT v. Paxton, 765 F. Supp. 3d 575 (W.D. Tex. 2025); NetChoice, LLC","paragraph_id":"para_715"},{"text":"v. Griffin, 2025 WL 978607 (W.D. Ark. Mar. 31, 2025); CCIA v. Paxton,","paragraph_id":"para_716"},{"text":"747 F. Supp. 3d 1011, 1032–34 (W.D. Tex. 2024); NetChoice, LLC v.","paragraph_id":"para_717"},{"text":"Reyes, 748 F. Supp. 3d 1105 (D. Utah 2024).","paragraph_id":"para_718"},{"text":"7 See Carr, 789 F. Supp. 3d at 1222 (finding statute content based on its","paragraph_id":"para_719"},{"text":"face because it distinguished between user-generated content and social-","paragraph_id":"para_720"},{"text":"media-provider-generated content); but see id. (distinguishing from case","paragraph_id":"para_721"},{"text":"where the statute defined “social media platforms,” inter alia, “by the","paragraph_id":"para_722"},{"text":"demographics of their users,” finding this was a “key difference”","paragraph_id":"para_723"},{"text":"between the statutes) (emphasis added); Fitch, 787 F. Supp. 3d at 275","paragraph_id":"para_724"},{"text":"(finding statute content based because it classifies based on whether the","paragraph_id":"para_725"},{"text":"entity disseminates “‘social interaction’ as opposed to ‘news, sports,","paragraph_id":"para_726"},{"text":"commerce, [or] online video games’” (alteration in original) (citation","paragraph_id":"para_727"},{"text":"modified)); Yost, 778 F. Supp. 3d at 953–54 (exceptions to statute’s","paragraph_id":"para_728"},{"text":"24 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_729"},{"text":"definitions based on the age demographics of a business’s","paragraph_id":"para_730"},{"text":"user base. The one case that did so rejected the argument","paragraph_id":"para_731"},{"text":"that such a classification was content based. See NetChoice,","paragraph_id":"para_732"},{"text":"LLC v. Yost, 716 F. Supp. 3d 539, 556 (S.D. Ohio 2024).","paragraph_id":"para_733"},{"text":"Moreover, in another recent case involving NetChoice, a","paragraph_id":"para_734"},{"text":"different panel of our court considered the central coverage","paragraph_id":"para_735"},{"text":"definition in California’s Protect Our Kids from Social","paragraph_id":"para_736"},{"text":"Media Addiction Act, Cal. Health & Safety Code §§ 27000–","paragraph_id":"para_737"},{"text":"07, which made the statute applicable “to any internet","paragraph_id":"para_738"},{"text":"website including . . . a social media platform that","paragraph_id":"para_739"},{"text":"personalizes feeds based on information provided by the","paragraph_id":"para_740"},{"text":"user.” NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at 1016 (citation","paragraph_id":"para_741"},{"text":"modified). NetChoice argued on appeal that “the Act’s focus","paragraph_id":"para_742"},{"text":"on social media makes the entire act content based.” Id. The","paragraph_id":"para_743"},{"text":"panel rejected that argument, explaining that the use of","paragraph_id":"para_744"},{"text":"“‘social media’ platform as statutory shorthand does not","paragraph_id":"para_745"},{"text":"render the Act content based, since it applies to websites","paragraph_id":"para_746"},{"text":"whether they facilitate social interaction or other forms of","paragraph_id":"para_747"},{"text":"content.” Id. Accordingly, the “Act as a whole” was not","paragraph_id":"para_748"},{"text":"coverage for “product review websites and ‘widely recognized’ media","paragraph_id":"para_749"},{"text":"outlets” and exceptions that “distinguish between the subset of websites","paragraph_id":"para_750"},{"text":"without private chat features based on their content” were content","paragraph_id":"para_751"},{"text":"based); Griffin, 2025 WL 978607, at *9 (coverage definition content","paragraph_id":"para_752"},{"text":"based on its face because whether a social media platform is covered","paragraph_id":"para_753"},{"text":"depends on whether the platform is primarily used for interacting","paragraph_id":"para_754"},{"text":"socially with other profiles); CCIA, 747 F. Supp. 3d at 1032 (coverage","paragraph_id":"para_755"},{"text":"definition that distinguishes between digital service providers who host","paragraph_id":"para_756"},{"text":"“social speech” but not “non-social interactions” was content based);","paragraph_id":"para_757"},{"text":"SEAT, 765 F. Supp. 3d at 592–94 (reaching the same conclusion as","paragraph_id":"para_758"},{"text":"CCIA); Reyes, 748 F. Supp. 3d 1105 at 1121 (coverage definition that","paragraph_id":"para_759"},{"text":"“draws distinctions between websites that allow users to interact socially","paragraph_id":"para_760"},{"text":"and websites that serve another function or purpose, such as those that","paragraph_id":"para_761"},{"text":"allow users to shop, read the news, access entertainment, educate","paragraph_id":"para_762"},{"text":"themselves, or conduct business” was content based).","paragraph_id":"para_763"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 25","paragraph_id":"para_764"},{"text":"content based by way of its coverage definition. Id. The","paragraph_id":"para_765"},{"text":"CAADCA’s coverage definition applies even more broadly,","paragraph_id":"para_766"},{"text":"regardless of whether an online business publishes content","paragraph_id":"para_767"},{"text":"of any kind or none at all.8","paragraph_id":"para_768"},{"text":"At bottom, to properly assert a facial challenge, it is","paragraph_id":"para_769"},{"text":"NetChoice’s burden to establish the CAADCA’s “full","paragraph_id":"para_770"},{"text":"range” by way of its coverage definition. NetChoice I, 113","paragraph_id":"para_771"},{"text":"F.4th at 1123. If NetChoice’s prime concern is the","paragraph_id":"para_772"},{"text":"CAADCA’s effect on social media companies or publishers,","paragraph_id":"para_773"},{"text":"it could have brought an as-applied challenge on behalf of","paragraph_id":"para_774"},{"text":"some of its members. Cf. NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at","paragraph_id":"para_775"},{"text":"1020 (“[F]acial challengers cannot focus on a law’s effect on","paragraph_id":"para_776"},{"text":"their own platforms—they cannot even limit the inquiry to","paragraph_id":"para_777"},{"text":"the tech giants. They must canvass ‘the full range of","paragraph_id":"para_778"},{"text":"activities’ covered by the law and ‘measure the","paragraph_id":"para_779"},{"text":"constitutional against the unconstitutional applications.’”","paragraph_id":"para_780"},{"text":"(quoting Moody, 603 U.S. at 724)). Instead, NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_781"},{"text":"pursued a more difficult path. That strategic decision","paragraph_id":"para_782"},{"text":"“comes at a cost.” Moody, 603 U.S. at 723. It requires","paragraph_id":"para_783"},{"text":"NetChoice to “develop a record that would allow the court","paragraph_id":"para_784"},{"text":"to ‘determine [the] law’s full set of applications,’ cataloging","paragraph_id":"para_785"},{"text":"what ‘activities, by what actors’ the law regulates.”","paragraph_id":"para_786"},{"text":"NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at 1021 (alteration in original)","paragraph_id":"para_787"},{"text":"(quoting Moody, 603 U.S. at 718, 724). We “cannot","paragraph_id":"para_788"},{"text":"speculate whether a law unduly burdens expression without","paragraph_id":"para_789"},{"text":"a developed record that explains not only how [NetChoice’s]","paragraph_id":"para_790"},{"text":"platforms work, but also how a wide range of third-party","paragraph_id":"para_791"},{"text":"8 For all of NetChoice’s focus on content, nowhere does it explain the","paragraph_id":"para_792"},{"text":"kind of content with which it is concerned, such as user-generated","paragraph_id":"para_793"},{"text":"content, content published by online businesses, or online businesses’","paragraph_id":"para_794"},{"text":"editorial choices. We are therefore in no position to consider whether,","paragraph_id":"para_795"},{"text":"or how, the CAADCA’s coverage definition might apply differently","paragraph_id":"para_796"},{"text":"even across different categories of online “content.”","paragraph_id":"para_797"},{"text":"26 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_798"},{"text":"services operate. This information is necessary to","paragraph_id":"para_799"},{"text":"characterize the denominator of a law’s applications.” Id. at","paragraph_id":"para_800"},{"text":"1020 (citation modified).","paragraph_id":"para_801"},{"text":"To be sure, as we observed in NetChoice SB 976,","paragraph_id":"para_802"},{"text":"“[d]oing so would entail the ‘daunting, if not impossible’","paragraph_id":"para_803"},{"text":"task of canvassing how the Act applies to an ‘ever-growing","paragraph_id":"para_804"},{"text":"number of apps, services, functionalities, and methods for","paragraph_id":"para_805"},{"text":"communication and connection.’” Id. at 1021 (first quoting","paragraph_id":"para_806"},{"text":"Moody, 603 U.S. at 745 (Barrett, J., concurring); and then","paragraph_id":"para_807"},{"text":"quoting Moody, 603 U.S at 725 (majority opinion)). We","paragraph_id":"para_808"},{"text":"recognized that “such a showing” might be “unrealistic.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_809"},{"text":"But we nevertheless stated then, and maintain now, that “[i]t","paragraph_id":"para_810"},{"text":"is a mystery how NetChoice could expect to prevail on a","paragraph_id":"para_811"},{"text":"facial challenge without candidly disclosing the platforms","paragraph_id":"para_812"},{"text":"that it thinks the challenged laws reach” and whether the","paragraph_id":"para_813"},{"text":"coverage definition unduly burdens those platforms’","paragraph_id":"para_814"},{"text":"expression. Id. at 1021–22 (alteration in original) (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_815"},{"text":"Moody, 603 U.S. at 787 (Alito, J., concurring)).","paragraph_id":"para_816"},{"text":"We need not decide today whether any of the coverage","paragraph_id":"para_817"},{"text":"definition’s enumerated indicators necessarily target","paragraph_id":"para_818"},{"text":"expressive activity. “[A]ll we recognize is that some” of the","paragraph_id":"para_819"},{"text":"indicators “may be expressive, while others are not, and that","paragraph_id":"para_820"},{"text":"inquiry is fact intensive.” Id. at 1021. Because NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_821"},{"text":"stumbles at both steps of the facial analysis, we end our","paragraph_id":"para_822"},{"text":"analysis where we began—with Moody. Accordingly, we","paragraph_id":"para_823"},{"text":"vacate the preliminary injunction with respect to the entire","paragraph_id":"para_824"},{"text":"CAADCA and remand for the district court to consider the","paragraph_id":"para_825"},{"text":"scope of the CAADCA’s coverage definition anew and to","paragraph_id":"para_826"},{"text":"weigh any unconstitutional applications against the","paragraph_id":"para_827"},{"text":"constitutional ones.","paragraph_id":"para_828"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 27","paragraph_id":"para_829"},{"text":"II. NetChoice’s challenges to individual provisions","paragraph_id":"para_830"},{"text":"are likely to succeed on the merits with respect to","paragraph_id":"para_831"},{"text":"the data use and dark patterns restrictions but","paragraph_id":"para_832"},{"text":"not the age estimation requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_833"},{"text":"In the alternative to NetChoice’s coverage-definition","paragraph_id":"para_834"},{"text":"theory, the district court concluded that NetChoice was","paragraph_id":"para_835"},{"text":"likely to prevail on its facial challenges to seven individual","paragraph_id":"para_836"},{"text":"provisions on First Amendment or vagueness grounds. The","paragraph_id":"para_837"},{"text":"State appeals with respect to the age estimation requirement,","paragraph_id":"para_838"},{"text":"Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(a)(5); the data use restrictions,","paragraph_id":"para_839"},{"text":"id. § 1798.99.31(b)(1)–(4); and the dark patterns restriction,","paragraph_id":"para_840"},{"text":"id. § 1798.99.31(b)(7); so those are the provisions we","paragraph_id":"para_841"},{"text":"consider. We vacate the preliminary injunction order with","paragraph_id":"para_842"},{"text":"respect to the age estimation requirement and remand for","paragraph_id":"para_843"},{"text":"further consideration. We affirm the preliminary injunction","paragraph_id":"para_844"},{"text":"with respect to the four challenged data use restrictions and","paragraph_id":"para_845"},{"text":"the dark patterns restriction.","paragraph_id":"para_846"},{"text":"A. NetChoice is not likely to succeed on the","paragraph_id":"para_847"},{"text":"merits of its facial challenge to the age","paragraph_id":"para_848"},{"text":"estimation requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_849"},{"text":"The CAADCA requires covered businesses to","paragraph_id":"para_850"},{"text":"“[e]stimate the age of child users with a reasonable level of","paragraph_id":"para_851"},{"text":"certainty appropriate to the risks that arise from the data","paragraph_id":"para_852"},{"text":"management practices of the business or apply the privacy","paragraph_id":"para_853"},{"text":"and data protections afforded to children to all consumers.”","paragraph_id":"para_854"},{"text":"Id. § 1798.99.31(a)(5). Before the district court, NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_855"},{"text":"challenged this requirement as facially invalid in all","paragraph_id":"para_856"},{"text":"applications. The district court rejected the State’s argument","paragraph_id":"para_857"},{"text":"that “estimating a user’s age is conduct, not expressive","paragraph_id":"para_858"},{"text":"activity,” finding that the requirement that businesses do so","paragraph_id":"para_859"},{"text":"“for the purpose of determining what content is appropriate","paragraph_id":"para_860"},{"text":"for [children of different] age[s] . . . imposes limits on the","paragraph_id":"para_861"},{"text":"28 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_862"},{"text":"content a covered business may publish and the content each","paragraph_id":"para_863"},{"text":"user may view.” The district court applied strict scrutiny","paragraph_id":"para_864"},{"text":"and, because it found that age estimation “will require","paragraph_id":"para_865"},{"text":"businesses to collect private information that users may not","paragraph_id":"para_866"},{"text":"wish to share,” concluded that the State had not “met its","paragraph_id":"para_867"},{"text":"burden to show that age estimation furthers its interest in the","paragraph_id":"para_868"},{"text":"privacy and well-being of children.” The district court","paragraph_id":"para_869"},{"text":"further held that the State failed to offer any evidence that","paragraph_id":"para_870"},{"text":"there were no less restrictive alternatives. As for the Moody","paragraph_id":"para_871"},{"text":"analysis, the district court found that “the provision will","paragraph_id":"para_872"},{"text":"impose the same barriers to speech on all covered businesses","paragraph_id":"para_873"},{"text":"and their audiences” and that, “because all applications of","paragraph_id":"para_874"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.31(a)(5) will impose barriers to protected speech,","paragraph_id":"para_875"},{"text":"the provision has no legitimate sweep.”","paragraph_id":"para_876"},{"text":"On appeal, the State maintains that the age estimation","paragraph_id":"para_877"},{"text":"requirement does not trigger First Amendment scrutiny and","paragraph_id":"para_878"},{"text":"that, though the requirement “triggers the Act’s other","paragraph_id":"para_879"},{"text":"substantive provisions for a particular user,” any impact on","paragraph_id":"para_880"},{"text":"expressive activity “is the result of the other substantive","paragraph_id":"para_881"},{"text":"provisions in the Act, not the age estimation requirement.”","paragraph_id":"para_882"},{"text":"The State further contends that even if the First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_883"},{"text":"applies, the age estimation provision is not content based","paragraph_id":"para_884"},{"text":"and, in any event, that it furthers the State’s compelling","paragraph_id":"para_885"},{"text":"interest in protecting children’s privacy and is sufficiently","paragraph_id":"para_886"},{"text":"tailored to that goal.","paragraph_id":"para_887"},{"text":"On the record before us, we cannot say that the age","paragraph_id":"para_888"},{"text":"estimation requirement facially violates the First","paragraph_id":"para_889"},{"text":"Amendment at all, much less in a substantial majority of its","paragraph_id":"para_890"},{"text":"applications. For one, it is unclear that the age estimation","paragraph_id":"para_891"},{"text":"requirement prevents access to content. The provision","paragraph_id":"para_892"},{"text":"requires covered businesses to either “[e]stimate the age of","paragraph_id":"para_893"},{"text":"child users with a reasonable level of certainty” or “apply the","paragraph_id":"para_894"},{"text":"privacy and data protections afforded to children to all","paragraph_id":"para_895"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 29","paragraph_id":"para_896"},{"text":"consumers.” Id. § 1798.99.31(a)(5). On appeal, NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_897"},{"text":"repeats the district court’s framing of the provision as","paragraph_id":"para_898"},{"text":"“requiring a business to estimate age for the purpose of","paragraph_id":"para_899"},{"text":"determining what content is appropriate for that age,” but the","paragraph_id":"para_900"},{"text":"provision says nothing about restricting content on its face.","paragraph_id":"para_901"},{"text":"See NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1122 (observing that “most of","paragraph_id":"para_902"},{"text":"[the provisions NetChoice challenges],” including the age","paragraph_id":"para_903"},{"text":"estimation provision, “by their plain language, do not","paragraph_id":"para_904"},{"text":"necessarily impact protected speech in all or even most","paragraph_id":"para_905"},{"text":"applications”). Rather, it requires covered businesses to","paragraph_id":"para_906"},{"text":"apply the Act’s privacy and data protections—“half of","paragraph_id":"para_907"},{"text":"which,” the State points out, “are not even challenged by","paragraph_id":"para_908"},{"text":"NetChoice in this suit.” The provision is clear that","paragraph_id":"para_909"},{"text":"businesses that do not wish to conduct age estimation may","paragraph_id":"para_910"},{"text":"publish any content they would like, as long as they default","paragraph_id":"para_911"},{"text":"to data and privacy protections for all users. Cal. Civil Code","paragraph_id":"para_912"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.31(a)(5). We are therefore not convinced that the","paragraph_id":"para_913"},{"text":"age estimation provision necessarily burdens protected","paragraph_id":"para_914"},{"text":"expression on its face by requiring covered businesses to","paragraph_id":"para_915"},{"text":"determine “what content is appropriate” for children.","paragraph_id":"para_916"},{"text":"NetChoice’s reading of Free Speech Coalition v. Paxton,","paragraph_id":"para_917"},{"text":"606 U.S. 461 (2025), also does not persuade. Free Speech","paragraph_id":"para_918"},{"text":"Coalition considered a statute that required covered entities","paragraph_id":"para_919"},{"text":"to make adult website visitors submit to an age verification","paragraph_id":"para_920"},{"text":"system using either “government-issued identification” or “a","paragraph_id":"para_921"},{"text":"commercially reasonable method that relies on public or","paragraph_id":"para_922"},{"text":"private transactional data.” Id. at 467 (quoting Tex. Civ.","paragraph_id":"para_923"},{"text":"Prac. & Rem. Code § 129B.003(b)(2)). The Supreme Court","paragraph_id":"para_924"},{"text":"observed only that, with respect to that system, there is an","paragraph_id":"para_925"},{"text":"“incidental burden that age verification necessarily has on an","paragraph_id":"para_926"},{"text":"adult’s First Amendment right to access speech that is","paragraph_id":"para_927"},{"text":"obscene only to minors.” Id. at 495. The Court said nothing","paragraph_id":"para_928"},{"text":"about the effect of age estimation on First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_929"},{"text":"30 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_930"},{"text":"burdens generally, especially where age estimation is not","paragraph_id":"para_931"},{"text":"required as a precondition to access content. To the contrary,","paragraph_id":"para_932"},{"text":"the Court observed that “adults have no First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_933"},{"text":"right to avoid age verification, and the [challenged law] can","paragraph_id":"para_934"},{"text":"readily be understood as an effort to restrict minors’ access.”","paragraph_id":"para_935"},{"text":"Id. at 483.","paragraph_id":"para_936"},{"text":"To the extent NetChoice argues that the age estimation","paragraph_id":"para_937"},{"text":"requirement “require[s] consideration of content or proxies","paragraph_id":"para_938"},{"text":"for content,” see NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1118, the age","paragraph_id":"para_939"},{"text":"estimation requirement may impliedly regulate speech—but","paragraph_id":"para_940"},{"text":"we cannot confidently draw that conclusion on this record,","paragraph_id":"para_941"},{"text":"either. Recall that the age estimation provision requires","paragraph_id":"para_942"},{"text":"“[e]stimat[ing] the age of child users with a reasonable level","paragraph_id":"para_943"},{"text":"of certainty appropriate to the risks that arise from the data","paragraph_id":"para_944"},{"text":"management practices of the business[.]” Cal. Civ. Code","paragraph_id":"para_945"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.31(a)(5) (emphasis added). The DPIA report","paragraph_id":"para_946"},{"text":"provision that we enjoined in NetChoice I also required","paragraph_id":"para_947"},{"text":"covered businesses to assess “the risks of material detriment","paragraph_id":"para_948"},{"text":"to children that arise from the data management practices of","paragraph_id":"para_949"},{"text":"the business” and required DPIA reports to address several","paragraph_id":"para_950"},{"text":"factors, “to the extent applicable,” including product design,","paragraph_id":"para_951"},{"text":"algorithms, automatic playing of media, and harmful content","paragraph_id":"para_952"},{"text":"on the platform. Id. § 1798.99.31(a)(1)(B) (emphasis","paragraph_id":"para_953"},{"text":"added).","paragraph_id":"para_954"},{"text":"We determined in NetChoice I that the “DPIA report","paragraph_id":"para_955"},{"text":"requirement regulates the speech of covered businesses and","paragraph_id":"para_956"},{"text":"thus triggers review under the First Amendment,” and we","paragraph_id":"para_957"},{"text":"explained that the enumerated “factors require consideration","paragraph_id":"para_958"},{"text":"of content or proxies for content.” 113 F.4th at 1118. We","paragraph_id":"para_959"},{"text":"rejected the State’s argument that the DPIA report","paragraph_id":"para_960"},{"text":"requirement “contains no reference to content” but rather","paragraph_id":"para_961"},{"text":"“requires a company to mitigate risks from its data","paragraph_id":"para_962"},{"text":"management practices.” Id. (emphases omitted). That was","paragraph_id":"para_963"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 31","paragraph_id":"para_964"},{"text":"because “§ 1798.99.31(a)(2) specifically defines data","paragraph_id":"para_965"},{"text":"management practices by reference to the statutory factors a","paragraph_id":"para_966"},{"text":"covered business must address under [the DPIA report","paragraph_id":"para_967"},{"text":"requirement] when assessing those risks.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_968"},{"text":"To the extent the term “data management practices” in","paragraph_id":"para_969"},{"text":"the age estimation provision is also defined by the statutory","paragraph_id":"para_970"},{"text":"factors in § 1798.99.31(a)(1)(B), NetChoice may have a","paragraph_id":"para_971"},{"text":"reasonable argument that the age estimation provision","paragraph_id":"para_972"},{"text":"triggers review under the First Amendment. On the other","paragraph_id":"para_973"},{"text":"hand, § 1798.99.31(a)(2) specifically refers to “data","paragraph_id":"para_974"},{"text":"management practices of the business identified in the","paragraph_id":"para_975"},{"text":"[DPIA] required by [§ 1798.99.31(a)(1)],” while the age","paragraph_id":"para_976"},{"text":"estimation requirement does not cross reference","paragraph_id":"para_977"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.31(a)(1). It is therefore not certain whether “data","paragraph_id":"para_978"},{"text":"management practices” takes on its plain meaning with","paragraph_id":"para_979"},{"text":"respect to age estimation or whether it impliedly cross-","paragraph_id":"para_980"},{"text":"references the statutory factors in § 1798.99.31(a)(1)(B)—","paragraph_id":"para_981"},{"text":"which we have read to trigger First Amendment review.","paragraph_id":"para_982"},{"text":"The parties do not develop these arguments, and the","paragraph_id":"para_983"},{"text":"district court did not address this precise question.","paragraph_id":"para_984"},{"text":"Accordingly, we vacate the preliminary injunction as to the","paragraph_id":"para_985"},{"text":"age estimation provision and remand to the district court to","paragraph_id":"para_986"},{"text":"consider this question in the first instance. However, we also","paragraph_id":"para_987"},{"text":"emphasize that § 1798.99.31(a)(5) allows a covered business","paragraph_id":"para_988"},{"text":"to avoid age estimation altogether if it defaults to “apply[ing]","paragraph_id":"para_989"},{"text":"the privacy and data protections afforded to children to all","paragraph_id":"para_990"},{"text":"consumers.” On remand, the parties and the district court","paragraph_id":"para_991"},{"text":"may wish to consider the effect of that opt-out language on","paragraph_id":"para_992"},{"text":"any burden on expression that may arise from the age","paragraph_id":"para_993"},{"text":"estimation requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_994"},{"text":"We also remand for further consideration of the age","paragraph_id":"para_995"},{"text":"estimation provision in light of Moody. In what must now","paragraph_id":"para_996"},{"text":"32 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_997"},{"text":"sound a familiar refrain, “the record needs further","paragraph_id":"para_998"},{"text":"development to allow the district court to determine ‘the full","paragraph_id":"para_999"},{"text":"range of activities the law[] cover[s].’” NetChoice I, 113","paragraph_id":"para_1000"},{"text":"F.4th at 1123 (alterations in original) (quoting Moody, 603","paragraph_id":"para_1001"},{"text":"U.S. at 724). In NetChoice I, we made that clear with respect","paragraph_id":"para_1002"},{"text":"to the CAADCA’s age estimation requirement specifically.","paragraph_id":"para_1003"},{"text":"See id. at 1122–23.","paragraph_id":"para_1004"},{"text":"In this appeal, there was no detailed record that would","paragraph_id":"para_1005"},{"text":"have allowed the district court to consider how the age","paragraph_id":"para_1006"},{"text":"estimation provision works in “all of its applications” in","paragraph_id":"para_1007"},{"text":"order to address its scope, including with respect to the term","paragraph_id":"para_1008"},{"text":"“data management practices.” Moody, 603 U.S. at 744","paragraph_id":"para_1009"},{"text":"(emphasis added); see also NetChoice SB 976, 152 F.4th at","paragraph_id":"para_1010"},{"text":"1021–22. Courts must be able to “carefully parse not only","paragraph_id":"para_1011"},{"text":"what entities are regulated, but how the regulated activities","paragraph_id":"para_1012"},{"text":"actually function before deciding if the activity in question","paragraph_id":"para_1013"},{"text":"constitutes expression and therefore comes within the First","paragraph_id":"para_1014"},{"text":"Amendment’s ambit.” Moody, 603 U.S. at 749 (Jackson, J.,","paragraph_id":"para_1015"},{"text":"concurring in part and concurring in the judgment). Absent","paragraph_id":"para_1016"},{"text":"a developed record on the various applications of the age","paragraph_id":"para_1017"},{"text":"estimation requirement—including applications that do not","paragraph_id":"para_1018"},{"text":"prevent access to content or require data collection for","paragraph_id":"para_1019"},{"text":"compliance—NetChoice cannot succeed on this facial","paragraph_id":"para_1020"},{"text":"attack. Likewise, the district court erred by assuming that","paragraph_id":"para_1021"},{"text":"the only way covered businesses could comply with the","paragraph_id":"para_1022"},{"text":"provision is by “collect[ing] private information that users","paragraph_id":"para_1023"},{"text":"may not wish to share,” resulting in","paragraph_id":"para_1024"},{"text":"“businesses . . . gather[ing] and creat[ing] a trove of","paragraph_id":"para_1025"},{"text":"sensitive data regarding children.” The State put forth","paragraph_id":"para_1026"},{"text":"evidence of methods for conducting age estimation that","paragraph_id":"para_1027"},{"text":"would be acceptable under § 1798.99.31(a)(5) and would","paragraph_id":"para_1028"},{"text":"require no additional data collection. The district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_1029"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 33","paragraph_id":"para_1030"},{"text":"discussion of the State’s evidence was limited and did not","paragraph_id":"para_1031"},{"text":"address this point.","paragraph_id":"para_1032"},{"text":"Consequently, we cannot determine, from our appellate","paragraph_id":"para_1033"},{"text":"posture, whether the age estimation requirement facially","paragraph_id":"para_1034"},{"text":"violates the First Amendment. We vacate the preliminary","paragraph_id":"para_1035"},{"text":"injunction as to Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(a)(5).","paragraph_id":"para_1036"},{"text":"B. NetChoice is likely to succeed on the merits of","paragraph_id":"para_1037"},{"text":"its vagueness challenges to the CAADCA’s","paragraph_id":"para_1038"},{"text":"data use restrictions and dark patterns","paragraph_id":"para_1039"},{"text":"restriction.","paragraph_id":"para_1040"},{"text":"We turn next to the preliminary injunction as to the","paragraph_id":"para_1041"},{"text":"CAADCA’s data use restrictions and the dark patterns","paragraph_id":"para_1042"},{"text":"restriction on constitutional vagueness grounds. “A","paragraph_id":"para_1043"},{"text":"fundamental principle in our legal system is that laws which","paragraph_id":"para_1044"},{"text":"regulate persons or entities must give fair notice of conduct","paragraph_id":"para_1045"},{"text":"that is forbidden or required.” FCC v. Fox Television","paragraph_id":"para_1046"},{"text":"Stations, Inc., 567 U.S. 239, 253 (2012). That principle","paragraph_id":"para_1047"},{"text":"“requires the invalidation of laws that are impermissibly","paragraph_id":"para_1048"},{"text":"vague.” Id. “A statute can be impermissibly vague . . . if it","paragraph_id":"para_1049"},{"text":"fails to provide people of ordinary intelligence a reasonable","paragraph_id":"para_1050"},{"text":"opportunity to understand what conduct it prohibits” or “if it","paragraph_id":"para_1051"},{"text":"authorizes or even encourages arbitrary and discriminatory","paragraph_id":"para_1052"},{"text":"enforcement.” Hill, 530 U.S. at 732; accord Matsumoto v.","paragraph_id":"para_1053"},{"text":"Labrador, 122 F.4th 787, 805 (9th Cir. 2024). When","paragraph_id":"para_1054"},{"text":"“vagueness permeates the text” of a law, “it is subject to","paragraph_id":"para_1055"},{"text":"facial attack.” City of Chicago v. Morales, 527 U.S. 41, 55","paragraph_id":"para_1056"},{"text":"(1999) (plurality opinion). And “[w]hen speech is involved,","paragraph_id":"para_1057"},{"text":"rigorous adherence to [the void for vagueness doctrine] is","paragraph_id":"para_1058"},{"text":"necessary to ensure that ambiguity does not chill protected","paragraph_id":"para_1059"},{"text":"speech.” Fox Television, 567 U.S. at 253–54.","paragraph_id":"para_1060"},{"text":"34 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_1061"},{"text":"1. Data Use Provisions","paragraph_id":"para_1062"},{"text":"The challenged data use provisions restrict the ways in","paragraph_id":"para_1063"},{"text":"which, and for what purposes, covered businesses may","paragraph_id":"para_1064"},{"text":"use a child’s personal information. Cal. Civ. Code","paragraph_id":"para_1065"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.31(b)(1)–(4). The relevant provisions state:","paragraph_id":"para_1066"},{"text":"(b) A business that provides an online","paragraph_id":"para_1067"},{"text":"service, product, or feature likely to be","paragraph_id":"para_1068"},{"text":"accessed by children shall not take any of the","paragraph_id":"para_1069"},{"text":"following actions:","paragraph_id":"para_1070"},{"text":"(1) Use the personal information of any child","paragraph_id":"para_1071"},{"text":"in a way that the business knows, or has","paragraph_id":"para_1072"},{"text":"reason to know, is materially detrimental","paragraph_id":"para_1073"},{"text":"to the physical health, mental health, or","paragraph_id":"para_1074"},{"text":"well-being of a child.","paragraph_id":"para_1075"},{"text":"(2) Profile a child by default unless both of","paragraph_id":"para_1076"},{"text":"the following criteria are met:","paragraph_id":"para_1077"},{"text":"(A) The business can demonstrate it has","paragraph_id":"para_1078"},{"text":"appropriate safeguards in place to","paragraph_id":"para_1079"},{"text":"protect children.","paragraph_id":"para_1080"},{"text":"(B) Either of the following is true:","paragraph_id":"para_1081"},{"text":"(i) Profiling is necessary to provide","paragraph_id":"para_1082"},{"text":"the online service, product, or","paragraph_id":"para_1083"},{"text":"feature requested and only with","paragraph_id":"para_1084"},{"text":"respect to the aspects of the online","paragraph_id":"para_1085"},{"text":"service, product, or feature with","paragraph_id":"para_1086"},{"text":"which the child is actively and","paragraph_id":"para_1087"},{"text":"knowingly engaged.","paragraph_id":"para_1088"},{"text":"(ii) The business can demonstrate a","paragraph_id":"para_1089"},{"text":"compelling reason that profiling","paragraph_id":"para_1090"},{"text":"is in the best interests of children.","paragraph_id":"para_1091"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 35","paragraph_id":"para_1092"},{"text":"(3) Collect, sell, share, or retain any personal","paragraph_id":"para_1093"},{"text":"information that is not necessary to","paragraph_id":"para_1094"},{"text":"provide an online service, product, or","paragraph_id":"para_1095"},{"text":"feature . . . unless the business can","paragraph_id":"para_1096"},{"text":"demonstrate a compelling reason that the","paragraph_id":"para_1097"},{"text":"collecting, selling, sharing, or retaining of","paragraph_id":"para_1098"},{"text":"the personal information is in the best","paragraph_id":"para_1099"},{"text":"interests of children likely to access the","paragraph_id":"para_1100"},{"text":"online service, product, or feature.","paragraph_id":"para_1101"},{"text":"(4) If the end user is a child, use personal","paragraph_id":"para_1102"},{"text":"information for any reason other than a","paragraph_id":"para_1103"},{"text":"reason for which that personal","paragraph_id":"para_1104"},{"text":"information was collected, unless the","paragraph_id":"para_1105"},{"text":"business can demonstrate a compelling","paragraph_id":"para_1106"},{"text":"reason that use of the personal","paragraph_id":"para_1107"},{"text":"information is in the best interests of","paragraph_id":"para_1108"},{"text":"children.","paragraph_id":"para_1109"},{"text":"Id. (emphases added).","paragraph_id":"para_1110"},{"text":"NetChoice challenged these provisions for their reliance","paragraph_id":"para_1111"},{"text":"on the undefined terms “material detriment,” “best","paragraph_id":"para_1112"},{"text":"interests,” and “well-being.” The district court agreed with","paragraph_id":"para_1113"},{"text":"NetChoice and concluded that these “terms have no","paragraph_id":"para_1114"},{"text":"established meaning and the CAADCA provides no","paragraph_id":"para_1115"},{"text":"guidance.” It explained that reasonable minds can disagree","paragraph_id":"para_1116"},{"text":"on what might be detrimental to a child’s health or well-","paragraph_id":"para_1117"},{"text":"being and rejected the State’s argument that the “best","paragraph_id":"para_1118"},{"text":"interests” of a child should be understood similarly to the","paragraph_id":"para_1119"},{"text":"same “legal term of art that is well-established in family","paragraph_id":"para_1120"},{"text":"law.”","paragraph_id":"para_1121"},{"text":"The State contends that “material detriment” and","paragraph_id":"para_1122"},{"text":"“physical health, mental health, or well-being” each have an","paragraph_id":"para_1123"},{"text":"36 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_1124"},{"text":"accepted plain meaning such that, taken together, the phrase","paragraph_id":"para_1125"},{"text":"means that “it causes meaningful harm to a child’s physical","paragraph_id":"para_1126"},{"text":"state, mental state, or overall condition of health and","paragraph_id":"para_1127"},{"text":"happiness.” The State cites examples like “using a child’s","paragraph_id":"para_1128"},{"text":"information to connect them to a person that seeks to abuse","paragraph_id":"para_1129"},{"text":"the child, such as through sexploitation,” or “[u]sing a","paragraph_id":"para_1130"},{"text":"child’s information to recommend illegal products such as","paragraph_id":"para_1131"},{"text":"tobacco, alcohol, or gambling[.]” But these are extreme","paragraph_id":"para_1132"},{"text":"examples at the margins of what might be materially","paragraph_id":"para_1133"},{"text":"detrimental to a child’s well-being. The more difficult","paragraph_id":"para_1134"},{"text":"questions arise with examples like sleep loss, distraction, or","paragraph_id":"para_1135"},{"text":"hurt feelings. As the district court reasoned, and NetChoice","paragraph_id":"para_1136"},{"text":"argues on appeal, the CAADCA does not provide any","paragraph_id":"para_1137"},{"text":"guidance as to the breadth of conduct that “material[]","paragraph_id":"para_1138"},{"text":"detriment[] to the physical health, mental health, or well-","paragraph_id":"para_1139"},{"text":"being of a child” may reach. Cal. Civ. Code","paragraph_id":"para_1140"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.31(b)(1). And NetChoice persuasively argues","paragraph_id":"para_1141"},{"text":"that the risk of subjective enforcement is particularly high","paragraph_id":"para_1142"},{"text":"because, as it contemplates “material detriment” to “a child,”","paragraph_id":"para_1143"},{"text":"the provision must be assessed as to any single child whose","paragraph_id":"para_1144"},{"text":"personal information is accessed by a covered online","paragraph_id":"para_1145"},{"text":"practice. Cf. NetChoice I, 113 F.4th at 1120 (observing that","paragraph_id":"para_1146"},{"text":"the DPIA requirement “that covered businesses opine on","paragraph_id":"para_1147"},{"text":"whether their services risk ‘material detriment to children’”","paragraph_id":"para_1148"},{"text":"is “vague and onerous”).","paragraph_id":"para_1149"},{"text":"The State next maintains that the term “best interests of","paragraph_id":"para_1150"},{"text":"children” should be understood in accordance with","paragraph_id":"para_1151"},{"text":"California’s standard “to determine child custody","paragraph_id":"para_1152"},{"text":"arrangements, to make guardianship decisions, and in","paragraph_id":"para_1153"},{"text":"delinquency proceedings.” Though, as the district court","paragraph_id":"para_1154"},{"text":"recognized, the “best interests of the child” standard is clear","paragraph_id":"para_1155"},{"text":"for the purpose of family law proceedings, the State does not","paragraph_id":"para_1156"},{"text":"persuasively explain why that case-by-case standard","paragraph_id":"para_1157"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 37","paragraph_id":"para_1158"},{"text":"translates to data privacy regulation. On the contrary, the","paragraph_id":"para_1159"},{"text":"State’s reading is incompatible with the data use restrictions’","paragraph_id":"para_1160"},{"text":"apparent goals. When evaluating the “best interests of the","paragraph_id":"para_1161"},{"text":"child” in family law proceedings, California courts","paragraph_id":"para_1162"},{"text":"recognize that “bright line rules in this area are","paragraph_id":"para_1163"},{"text":"inappropriate” and that “each case must be evaluated on its","paragraph_id":"para_1164"},{"text":"own unique facts.” In re Marriage of LaMusga, 88 P.3d 81,","paragraph_id":"para_1165"},{"text":"91 (Cal. 2004) (citation modified). The standard operates","paragraph_id":"para_1166"},{"text":"through a specific child’s circumstances and factual record.","paragraph_id":"para_1167"},{"text":"See id. The data use restrictions ask something categorically","paragraph_id":"para_1168"},{"text":"different: covered businesses must determine prospectively","paragraph_id":"para_1169"},{"text":"whether a given practice is in “the best interests of” not any","paragraph_id":"para_1170"},{"text":"one child but “children”—a class of users that includes every","paragraph_id":"para_1171"},{"text":"child anywhere who can access a covered online practice.","paragraph_id":"para_1172"},{"text":"Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(b)(1)–(4) (emphasis added).","paragraph_id":"para_1173"},{"text":"Then covered businesses must tailor their practice","paragraph_id":"para_1174"},{"text":"accordingly. Applied at that scale, without the","paragraph_id":"para_1175"},{"text":"individualized, highly specific factual record giving the","paragraph_id":"para_1176"},{"text":"standard meaning in contexts such as a family law case,","paragraph_id":"para_1177"},{"text":"“best interests of children” cannot provide “sufficient notice","paragraph_id":"para_1178"},{"text":"of what is proscribed,” Fox Television, 567 U.S. at 254.","paragraph_id":"para_1179"},{"text":"The State’s argument that the provision’s scienter","paragraph_id":"para_1180"},{"text":"requirement mitigates vagueness is not persuasive. To be","paragraph_id":"para_1181"},{"text":"sure, “a scienter requirement may mitigate a law’s","paragraph_id":"para_1182"},{"text":"vagueness, especially with respect to the adequacy of notice","paragraph_id":"para_1183"},{"text":"to the complainant that his conduct is proscribed.” Vill. of","paragraph_id":"para_1184"},{"text":"Hoffman Estates v. Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S.","paragraph_id":"para_1185"},{"text":"489, 499 (1982); see also Hill, 530 U.S. at 732. But “[t]he","paragraph_id":"para_1186"},{"text":"degree of vagueness that the Constitution tolerates” also","paragraph_id":"para_1187"},{"text":"“depends in part on the nature of the enactment.” Vill. of","paragraph_id":"para_1188"},{"text":"Hoffman Estates, 455 U.S. at 498. The critical flaw of the","paragraph_id":"para_1189"},{"text":"restriction here is that the “what [that] must be proven","paragraph_id":"para_1190"},{"text":"is . . . vague.” United States v. Jae Gab Kim, 449 F.3d 933,","paragraph_id":"para_1191"},{"text":"38 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_1192"},{"text":"943 (9th Cir. 2006). Put another way, the “reason to know”","paragraph_id":"para_1193"},{"text":"language cannot mitigate vagueness where what is","paragraph_id":"para_1194"},{"text":"“materially detrimental” to any single child’s “well-being”","paragraph_id":"para_1195"},{"text":"is not clear. Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(b)(1).","paragraph_id":"para_1196"},{"text":"The State contends that “reason to know” is frequently","paragraph_id":"para_1197"},{"text":"defined to mean “[i]nformation from which a person of","paragraph_id":"para_1198"},{"text":"ordinary intelligence . . . would infer that the fact in question","paragraph_id":"para_1199"},{"text":"exists or that there is a substantial enough chance of its","paragraph_id":"para_1200"},{"text":"existence that, if the person exercises reasonable care, the","paragraph_id":"para_1201"},{"text":"person can assume the fact exists.” Reason To Know,","paragraph_id":"para_1202"},{"text":"BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (12th ed. 2024); see also, e.g.,","paragraph_id":"para_1203"},{"text":"RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF TORTS § 12 (1965). And","paragraph_id":"para_1204"},{"text":"because a business of ordinary intelligence could “base [its]","paragraph_id":"para_1205"},{"text":"behavior on [its] factual knowledge of the situation at hand","paragraph_id":"para_1206"},{"text":"and thereby avoid violating the law,” the argument goes, the","paragraph_id":"para_1207"},{"text":"data use prohibitions are clear as to the scope of conduct they","paragraph_id":"para_1208"},{"text":"regulate. Jae Gab Kim, 449 F.3d at 943. But as written, it","paragraph_id":"para_1209"},{"text":"is not sufficient for a covered business “to be aware only of","paragraph_id":"para_1210"},{"text":"the objective facts that would fairly put [it] on notice of the","paragraph_id":"para_1211"},{"text":"use for which” child user data is utilized. Cf. Stoianoff v.","paragraph_id":"para_1212"},{"text":"Montana, 695 F.2d 1214, 1221 (9th Cir. 1983) (describing","paragraph_id":"para_1213"},{"text":"the effect of a “reasonably should know” mens rea element","paragraph_id":"para_1214"},{"text":"in a Montana drug paraphernalia statute); Jae Gab Kim, 449","paragraph_id":"para_1215"},{"text":"F.3d at 943 (“Whether a defendant is guilty of having","paragraph_id":"para_1216"},{"text":"‘reasonable cause to believe’ that pseudoephedrine [in the","paragraph_id":"para_1217"},{"text":"defendant’s possession] will be used to produce illicit drugs","paragraph_id":"para_1218"},{"text":"[in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 841(c)(2)] turns on the facts","paragraph_id":"para_1219"},{"text":"actually known by the defendant in a particular case.”","paragraph_id":"para_1220"},{"text":"(citation modified)). The structure of the provision is clear:","paragraph_id":"para_1221"},{"text":"its mens rea element applies to a covered business’s","paragraph_id":"para_1222"},{"text":"knowledge that the use of the personal information of a child","paragraph_id":"para_1223"},{"text":"would cause a particular child material harm. Cal. Civ. Code","paragraph_id":"para_1224"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.31(b)(1). Absent any statutory guidance on the","paragraph_id":"para_1225"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 39","paragraph_id":"para_1226"},{"text":"meaning of “material[] detriment[],” the provision’s scienter","paragraph_id":"para_1227"},{"text":"requirement does not solve its vagueness.","paragraph_id":"para_1228"},{"text":"2. Dark Patterns Restriction","paragraph_id":"para_1229"},{"text":"The parties make similar arguments respecting the","paragraph_id":"para_1230"},{"text":"CAADCA’s dark patterns restriction. That provision","paragraph_id":"para_1231"},{"text":"prohibits covered businesses from:","paragraph_id":"para_1232"},{"text":"Us[ing] dark patterns to lead or encourage","paragraph_id":"para_1233"},{"text":"children to provide personal information","paragraph_id":"para_1234"},{"text":"beyond what is reasonably expected to","paragraph_id":"para_1235"},{"text":"provide that online service, product, or","paragraph_id":"para_1236"},{"text":"feature to forego privacy protections, or to","paragraph_id":"para_1237"},{"text":"take any action that the business knows, or","paragraph_id":"para_1238"},{"text":"has reason to know, is materially detrimental","paragraph_id":"para_1239"},{"text":"to the child’s physical health, mental health,","paragraph_id":"para_1240"},{"text":"or well-being.","paragraph_id":"para_1241"},{"text":"Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(b)(7) (emphases added).","paragraph_id":"para_1242"},{"text":"The district court found this provision unconstitutionally","paragraph_id":"para_1243"},{"text":"vague because it does not provide any guidance to covered","paragraph_id":"para_1244"},{"text":"businesses regarding when they would have “reason to","paragraph_id":"para_1245"},{"text":"know” that their user interface will have a “materially","paragraph_id":"para_1246"},{"text":"detrimental” effect on a child’s health or well-being. On","paragraph_id":"para_1247"},{"text":"appeal, the State argues that “dark patterns” is a defined term","paragraph_id":"para_1248"},{"text":"in the CAADCA9; that the phrase “materially detrimental to","paragraph_id":"para_1249"},{"text":"the child’s physical health, mental health, or well-being” has","paragraph_id":"para_1250"},{"text":"a clear, plain language meaning; and that the provision’s","paragraph_id":"para_1251"},{"text":"mens rea requirement—that the business had “reason to","paragraph_id":"para_1252"},{"text":"9 The Act incorporates a definition of a “dark pattern” as “a user interface","paragraph_id":"para_1253"},{"text":"designed or manipulated with the substantial effect of subverting or","paragraph_id":"para_1254"},{"text":"impairing user autonomy, decisionmaking, or choice, as further defined","paragraph_id":"para_1255"},{"text":"by regulation.” Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.140(l); id. § 1798.99.30(a).","paragraph_id":"para_1256"},{"text":"40 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_1257"},{"text":"know” its design choice would cause material harm to a","paragraph_id":"para_1258"},{"text":"child’s well-being—mitigates against vagueness.","paragraph_id":"para_1259"},{"text":"As with the data use restrictions, the State’s plain-","paragraph_id":"para_1260"},{"text":"meaning argument is unconvincing where the range of harms","paragraph_id":"para_1261"},{"text":"that could plausibly qualify as “materially detrimental” is","paragraph_id":"para_1262"},{"text":"vast, spanning everything from financial exploitation to","paragraph_id":"para_1263"},{"text":"sleep loss, distraction, or hurt feelings. The fact that “dark","paragraph_id":"para_1264"},{"text":"pattern” is a defined term in the CAADCA does not help a","paragraph_id":"para_1265"},{"text":"covered business distinguish between these harms. And the","paragraph_id":"para_1266"},{"text":"prohibition’s use of the singular “child,” like in the data use","paragraph_id":"para_1267"},{"text":"restrictions, suggests that it is actionable based on a single","paragraph_id":"para_1268"},{"text":"child’s response to an online interface, meaning that a","paragraph_id":"para_1269"},{"text":"business designing a product accessed by millions of child","paragraph_id":"para_1270"},{"text":"users could face liability whenever any one of them","paragraph_id":"para_1271"},{"text":"experiences a harm that a regulator deems “material.” See","paragraph_id":"para_1272"},{"text":"Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(b)(7). Businesses of ordinary","paragraph_id":"para_1273"},{"text":"intelligence cannot reliably determine what compliance","paragraph_id":"para_1274"},{"text":"requires. See Grayned v. City of Rockford, 408 U.S. 104,","paragraph_id":"para_1275"},{"text":"108 (1972). The “reason to know” scienter requirement also","paragraph_id":"para_1276"},{"text":"cannot cure this vagueness. The State argues that the","paragraph_id":"para_1277"},{"text":"restriction does not require a covered business “to figure out","paragraph_id":"para_1278"},{"text":"if a particular user interface will harm a child” but merely","paragraph_id":"para_1279"},{"text":"directs the covered business to “act in accordance with its","paragraph_id":"para_1280"},{"text":"existing knowledge”; in other words, “[w]hen a business","paragraph_id":"para_1281"},{"text":"lacks knowledge of any harm, the restriction does not","paragraph_id":"para_1282"},{"text":"apply.” But the “reason to know” language here applies to a","paragraph_id":"para_1283"},{"text":"covered business’s knowledge that “any action” it takes","paragraph_id":"para_1284"},{"text":"utilizing dark patterns would cause a particular child","paragraph_id":"para_1285"},{"text":"material harm. See Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.31(b)(7).","paragraph_id":"para_1286"},{"text":"Absent statutory guidance on the meaning of “material[]","paragraph_id":"para_1287"},{"text":"detriment[],” the provision remains vague. See id.","paragraph_id":"para_1288"},{"text":"We therefore affirm the district court’s injunction with","paragraph_id":"para_1289"},{"text":"respect to the data use and dark patterns restrictions on","paragraph_id":"para_1290"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 41","paragraph_id":"para_1291"},{"text":"vagueness grounds. “A fundamental requirement of due","paragraph_id":"para_1292"},{"text":"process is that a statute must clearly delineate the conduct it","paragraph_id":"para_1293"},{"text":"proscribes.” Foti v. City of Menlo Park, 146 F.3d 629, 638","paragraph_id":"para_1294"},{"text":"(9th Cir. 1998) (citation modified). These provisions do not","paragraph_id":"para_1295"},{"text":"do so.","paragraph_id":"para_1296"},{"text":"III. It remains unclear whether the notice-and-cure","paragraph_id":"para_1297"},{"text":"provision is severable from the CAADCA’s valid","paragraph_id":"para_1298"},{"text":"remainder.","paragraph_id":"para_1299"},{"text":"We turn next to severability. Specifically, the parties","paragraph_id":"para_1300"},{"text":"dispute whether the remaining, valid provisions of the","paragraph_id":"para_1301"},{"text":"CAADCA are separable from the notice-and-cure provision","paragraph_id":"para_1302"},{"text":"we enjoined in NetChoice I. That provision would have","paragraph_id":"para_1303"},{"text":"required a noncompliant business to “cure[] any noticed","paragraph_id":"para_1304"},{"text":"violation and provide[] the Attorney General a written","paragraph_id":"para_1305"},{"text":"statement that the alleged violations have been cured, and","paragraph_id":"para_1306"},{"text":"sufficient measures have been taken to prevent future","paragraph_id":"para_1307"},{"text":"violations” within 90 days of written notice of the alleged","paragraph_id":"para_1308"},{"text":"violation from the Attorney General. Cal. Civ. Code","paragraph_id":"para_1309"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.35(c)(2). In NetChoice I, we affirmed the district","paragraph_id":"para_1310"},{"text":"court’s severability analysis to the extent that it enjoined","paragraph_id":"para_1311"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.35(c) on the basis that it was not grammatically","paragraph_id":"para_1312"},{"text":"severable from the DPIA report requirement. 113 F.4th at","paragraph_id":"para_1313"},{"text":"1125; accord NetChoice, 692 F. Supp. 3d at 960–61.","paragraph_id":"para_1314"},{"text":"Severability of a state statute is governed by state law.","paragraph_id":"para_1315"},{"text":"See Vivid Ent., LLC v. Fielding, 774 F.3d 566, 574 (9th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_1316"},{"text":"2014). Under California law, an invalid statutory provision","paragraph_id":"para_1317"},{"text":"may be severed if the invalid provision is “grammatically,","paragraph_id":"para_1318"},{"text":"functionally, and volitionally separable.” Cal.","paragraph_id":"para_1319"},{"text":"Redevelopment Ass’n v. Matosantos, 267 P.3d 580, 607 (Cal.","paragraph_id":"para_1320"},{"text":"2011) (quoting Calfarm Ins. Co. v. Deukmejian, 48 Cal.3d","paragraph_id":"para_1321"},{"text":"805, 821 (1989) (en banc)). The parties dispute only","paragraph_id":"para_1322"},{"text":"volitional severability.","paragraph_id":"para_1323"},{"text":"42 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_1324"},{"text":"“Volitional separability depends on whether the","paragraph_id":"para_1325"},{"text":"remainder would have been adopted by the legislative body","paragraph_id":"para_1326"},{"text":"had the latter foreseen the partial invalidation of the statute.”","paragraph_id":"para_1327"},{"text":"Id. at 608 (citation modified). While the presence of a","paragraph_id":"para_1328"},{"text":"severability clause “establishes a presumption in favor of","paragraph_id":"para_1329"},{"text":"severance,” id. at 607, “the absence of such a clause is not","paragraph_id":"para_1330"},{"text":"conclusive,” Cnty. of Sonoma v. Superior Ct., 173 Cal. App.","paragraph_id":"para_1331"},{"text":"4th 322, 352 (2009). The California Supreme Court has","paragraph_id":"para_1332"},{"text":"explained that “[t]he issue, when assessing volitional","paragraph_id":"para_1333"},{"text":"separability, is not whether a legislative body would have","paragraph_id":"para_1334"},{"text":"preferred the whole to the part,” but “whether a legislative","paragraph_id":"para_1335"},{"text":"body, knowing that only part of its enactment would be","paragraph_id":"para_1336"},{"text":"valid, would have preferred that part to nothing.”","paragraph_id":"para_1337"},{"text":"Matosantos, 267 P.3d at 609. Accordingly, even where “the","paragraph_id":"para_1338"},{"text":"full purpose” of a statute “cannot be realized” due to an","paragraph_id":"para_1339"},{"text":"invalid provision, courts may reasonably suppose “that those","paragraph_id":"para_1340"},{"text":"who favored the [statute] would be happy to achieve at least","paragraph_id":"para_1341"},{"text":"some substantial portion of [its] purpose.” Santa Barbara","paragraph_id":"para_1342"},{"text":"Sch. Dist. v. Superior Court, 530 P.2d 605, 618 (Cal. 1975)","paragraph_id":"para_1343"},{"text":"(en banc). Thus, the question is whether the notice-and-cure","paragraph_id":"para_1344"},{"text":"provision is “so critical to the enactment of [the CAADCA]","paragraph_id":"para_1345"},{"text":"that the [statute] would not have been enacted in its","paragraph_id":"para_1346"},{"text":"absence.” Calfarm Ins., 771 P.2d at 1256; see Acosta v. City","paragraph_id":"para_1347"},{"text":"of Costa Mesa, 718 F.3d 800, 818–19 (9th Cir. 2013) (per","paragraph_id":"para_1348"},{"text":"curiam) (concluding that invalid provision was not","paragraph_id":"para_1349"},{"text":"volitionally severable because doing so “would [] leave an","paragraph_id":"para_1350"},{"text":"ordinance that no longer prohibits the speech the City","paragraph_id":"para_1351"},{"text":"intended it to prohibit”); see also Metromedia, Inc. v. City of","paragraph_id":"para_1352"},{"text":"San Diego, 649 P.2d 902, 909 (Cal. 1982) (en banc)","paragraph_id":"para_1353"},{"text":"(declining to sever portions of a statute where severance","paragraph_id":"para_1354"},{"text":"would “leave the city with an ordinance different than it","paragraph_id":"para_1355"},{"text":"intended, one less effective in achieving the city’s goals”).","paragraph_id":"para_1356"},{"text":"Put another way, the district court must consider whether","paragraph_id":"para_1357"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 43","paragraph_id":"para_1358"},{"text":"“the legislature would have wanted the benefits accorded in","paragraph_id":"para_1359"},{"text":"[the CAADCA’s valid] provisions to remain.” Katz v.","paragraph_id":"para_1360"},{"text":"Children’s Hosp. of Orange Cnty., 28 F.3d 1520, 1532 (9th","paragraph_id":"para_1361"},{"text":"Cir. 1994).","paragraph_id":"para_1362"},{"text":"The district court agreed with NetChoice that the Act’s","paragraph_id":"para_1363"},{"text":"remaining provisions were not volitionally severable from","paragraph_id":"para_1364"},{"text":"the enjoined DPIA provisions. The district court credited","paragraph_id":"para_1365"},{"text":"NetChoice’s evidence of the importance of the notice-and-","paragraph_id":"para_1366"},{"text":"cure provision to the passage of the CAADCA. It noted that","paragraph_id":"para_1367"},{"text":"the “legislature was presented with multiple versions of the","paragraph_id":"para_1368"},{"text":"bill omitting the notice and cure provision, and even a","paragraph_id":"para_1369"},{"text":"version including a shorter 45-day notice and cure period”","paragraph_id":"para_1370"},{"text":"but that the CAADCA was not passed “until the 90-day safe","paragraph_id":"para_1371"},{"text":"harbor was included.” Thus, the district court could not","paragraph_id":"para_1372"},{"text":"“find that the DPIA provisions, including the safe harbor","paragraph_id":"para_1373"},{"text":"provision, were not of critical importance to the [Act’]s","paragraph_id":"para_1374"},{"text":"enactment.”","paragraph_id":"para_1375"},{"text":"Today, we find ourselves in much the same position as","paragraph_id":"para_1376"},{"text":"we were in NetChoice I. That is, at this stage of the","paragraph_id":"para_1377"},{"text":"litigation, we cannot determine whether the CAADCA’s","paragraph_id":"para_1378"},{"text":"remaining provisions are volitionally severable from the","paragraph_id":"para_1379"},{"text":"enjoined 90-day cure period. We therefore vacate the district","paragraph_id":"para_1380"},{"text":"court’s preliminary injunction as to the CAADCA’s","paragraph_id":"para_1381"},{"text":"remaining provisions.","paragraph_id":"para_1382"},{"text":"To start, while NetChoice asserts that the CAADCA’s","paragraph_id":"para_1383"},{"text":"omission of a severability clause “raises a presumption of","paragraph_id":"para_1384"},{"text":"inseverability,” the California Supreme Court has repeatedly","paragraph_id":"para_1385"},{"text":"made clear that neither the presence nor the absence of a","paragraph_id":"para_1386"},{"text":"severability clause is conclusive. See, e.g., Gerken v. Fair","paragraph_id":"para_1387"},{"text":"Pol. Pracs. Comm’n., 863 P.2d 694, 698 (Cal. 1993) (en","paragraph_id":"para_1388"},{"text":"banc); Santa Barbara Sch. Dist., 530 P.2d at 618;","paragraph_id":"para_1389"},{"text":"44 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_1390"},{"text":"Legislature v. Eu, 816 P.2d 1309, 1335 (Cal. 1991) (en","paragraph_id":"para_1391"},{"text":"banc).","paragraph_id":"para_1392"},{"text":"NetChoice also fails to establish, at this preliminary","paragraph_id":"para_1393"},{"text":"stage of the litigation, that eliminating the notice-and-cure","paragraph_id":"para_1394"},{"text":"provision transforms the CAADCA from a regulatory","paragraph_id":"para_1395"},{"text":"scheme focused on compliance to a “punitive, strict liability","paragraph_id":"para_1396"},{"text":"regime.” It is unclear from the record that the CAADCA","paragraph_id":"para_1397"},{"text":"necessarily works that way. Absent the notice-and-cure","paragraph_id":"para_1398"},{"text":"provision, the Act imposes a civil penalty of up to $2,500","paragraph_id":"para_1399"},{"text":"“per affected child for each negligent violation” or up to","paragraph_id":"para_1400"},{"text":"$7,500 “per affected child for each intentional violation,”","paragraph_id":"para_1401"},{"text":"recoverable only through a civil action brought by the","paragraph_id":"para_1402"},{"text":"Attorney General. Cal. Civ. Code § 1798.99.35(a). The","paragraph_id":"para_1403"},{"text":"State may thus pursue compliance by enforcing both","paragraph_id":"para_1404"},{"text":"negligent and intentional violations, each of which would","paragraph_id":"para_1405"},{"text":"ostensibly require the State to prove negligence or intent,","paragraph_id":"para_1406"},{"text":"respectively. But because the parties do not develop these","paragraph_id":"para_1407"},{"text":"arguments, we again cannot say whether “elimination of the","paragraph_id":"para_1408"},{"text":"90-day cure period affects whether provisions concerning","paragraph_id":"para_1409"},{"text":"the Attorney General’s civil enforcement of valid sections of","paragraph_id":"para_1410"},{"text":"the CAADCA are volitionally severable.” NetChoice I, 113","paragraph_id":"para_1411"},{"text":"F.4th at 1125.","paragraph_id":"para_1412"},{"text":"Moreover, the district court overstates the import of the","paragraph_id":"para_1413"},{"text":"chronology of the Act’s passage. As NetChoice notes, the","paragraph_id":"para_1414"},{"text":"legislature referred a version of the draft bill that did not","paragraph_id":"para_1415"},{"text":"contain a notice-and-cure provision to the “suspense file” on","paragraph_id":"para_1416"},{"text":"August 1, 2022. The bill was amended on August 11, 2022,","paragraph_id":"para_1417"},{"text":"to add a 45-day cure period and revised again on August 22,","paragraph_id":"para_1418"},{"text":"2022, to include the presently enjoined 90-day cure period.","paragraph_id":"para_1419"},{"text":"But these revisions also included amendments to other","paragraph_id":"para_1420"},{"text":"substantive provisions, including the age estimation","paragraph_id":"para_1421"},{"text":"requirement and dark patterns restriction at issue in this","paragraph_id":"para_1422"},{"text":"appeal, as well as provisions exempting broadband internet","paragraph_id":"para_1423"},{"text":"NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA 45","paragraph_id":"para_1424"},{"text":"services, telecommunications services, and physical","paragraph_id":"para_1425"},{"text":"products from the Act’s coverage. The district court itself","paragraph_id":"para_1426"},{"text":"recognized that the bill underwent several rounds of","paragraph_id":"para_1427"},{"text":"“substantial changes.” And, as the State argues on appeal,","paragraph_id":"para_1428"},{"text":"NetChoice does not demonstrate that the 90-day cure period","paragraph_id":"para_1429"},{"text":"was the reason the bill was ultimately passed.","paragraph_id":"para_1430"},{"text":"On the other hand, the district court may have","paragraph_id":"para_1431"},{"text":"underweighted the State’s evidence. The State argues that","paragraph_id":"para_1432"},{"text":"the Act’s findings make clear that “companies should","paragraph_id":"para_1433"},{"text":"prioritize the privacy, safety, and well-being of children” and","paragraph_id":"para_1434"},{"text":"that “children should be afforded protections” by both online","paragraph_id":"para_1435"},{"text":"services “specifically directed at them” and “all","paragraph_id":"para_1436"},{"text":"online . . . services they are likely to access.” Cal. Civ. Code","paragraph_id":"para_1437"},{"text":"§ 1798.99.29; see also Ohio House, LLC v. City of Costa","paragraph_id":"para_1438"},{"text":"Mesa, 135 F.4th 645, 677 (9th Cir. 2025) (holding invalid","paragraph_id":"para_1439"},{"text":"provision volitionally severable under California law by","paragraph_id":"para_1440"},{"text":"looking to regulation’s “purpose provision”); People v.","paragraph_id":"para_1441"},{"text":"Nguyen, 222 Cal. App. 4th 1168, 1193 (2014) (looking to","paragraph_id":"para_1442"},{"text":"ordinance’s “purpose and intent section”). The legislative","paragraph_id":"para_1443"},{"text":"history also repeatedly emphasizes that the CAADCA is","paragraph_id":"para_1444"},{"text":"distinct from other “[f]ederal and state efforts to protect","paragraph_id":"para_1445"},{"text":"children online” because those statutes “permit online","paragraph_id":"para_1446"},{"text":"platforms to treat all consumers as adults unless there is","paragraph_id":"para_1447"},{"text":"actual knowledge that a consumer is a child” and therefore","paragraph_id":"para_1448"},{"text":"do not “offer the highest privacy protections by design and","paragraph_id":"para_1449"},{"text":"by default.” Cal. A.B. No. 2273, at 5 (2022) (Comm. on","paragraph_id":"para_1450"},{"text":"Privacy & Consumer Prot. Rep.). The legislature may have","paragraph_id":"para_1451"},{"text":"understood the CAADCA to fill that regulatory gap by","paragraph_id":"para_1452"},{"text":"ensuring covered businesses default to the highest privacy","paragraph_id":"para_1453"},{"text":"protections. But we are unable to determine on this record","paragraph_id":"para_1454"},{"text":"whether the legislature considered the notice-and-cure","paragraph_id":"para_1455"},{"text":"provision necessary to achieving that goal.","paragraph_id":"para_1456"},{"text":"46 NETCHOICE, LLC V. BONTA","paragraph_id":"para_1457"},{"text":"Accordingly, we vacate the district court’s determination","paragraph_id":"para_1458"},{"text":"that the notice-and-cure provision is not volitionally","paragraph_id":"para_1459"},{"text":"severable from the CAADCA’s valid remainder, and we","paragraph_id":"para_1460"},{"text":"remand for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.","paragraph_id":"para_1461"},{"text":"CONCLUSION","paragraph_id":"para_1462"},{"text":"For the foregoing reasons, we AFFIRM the district","paragraph_id":"para_1463"},{"text":"court’s preliminary injunction insofar as it enjoined","paragraph_id":"para_1464"},{"text":"enforcement of California Civil Code §§ 1798.99.31(b)(1)–","paragraph_id":"para_1465"},{"text":"(4) and 1798.99.31(b)(7), and VACATE the remainder of","paragraph_id":"para_1466"},{"text":"the preliminary injunction.10 Both parties shall bear their","paragraph_id":"para_1467"},{"text":"own costs on appeal. See Fed. R. App. P. 39(a)(4).","paragraph_id":"para_1468"},{"text":"10 We do not reach NetChoice’s alternative grounds for affirming the","paragraph_id":"para_1469"},{"text":"district court’s preliminary injunction. 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