{"attribution":{"source":"legal.exploreworldai.com","canonical":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca8-25-1892-2026-10-05","cite_as":"NovaCopilot, legal.exploreworldai.com (https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca8-25-1892-2026-10-05)","license":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/revision","version":"legal-2026-10-20","fingerprint":"ewai:us:49b4aa","proof":"sha256:b959974fc250aaaf691253efec9257dbef9374a0633b6872f62f27b7e26bfc33","jurisdiction":"us","lang":"en","publisher":"NovaCopilot by ExploreWorld Legal","terms":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/om"},"brand_source":"Source: NovaCopilot","item":{"schema_version":"1.0.0","id":"us:ca8-25-1892-2026-10-05","jurisdiction":"us","lang":"en","brand_source":"Source: NovaCopilot","brand":{"product":"NovaCopilot","platform":"ExploreWorldAI","infrastructure":"ExploreWorld Legal","infrastructure_url":"legal.exploreworldai.com","legal_entity":"Valkiv Ventures AB","permanent_url":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/novacopilot","source":"Source: NovaCopilot","powered_by":"Powered by NovaCopilot","license":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/licensvillkor"},"sections":[{"title":"United States Court of Appeals","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"For the Eighth Circuit","paragraphs":["para_3"]},{"title":"No. 25-1892","paragraphs":["para_5"]},{"title":"Jane Does, 1-11; Jane Doe, XII; John Does, 1-15; John Doe, XVI; J.G., by and","paragraphs":["para_7"]},{"title":"K.P., by and through Next Friend Jane Doe X; S.P., by and through Next Friend","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Jane Doe X; S.C.L.R. I, by and through Next Friend John Doe I; S.C.L.R. II, by","paragraphs":["para_10"]},{"title":"John Doe I; C. C., by and through Next Friend John Doe VI; H.P.S., by and","paragraphs":["para_12"]},{"title":"III; H.W.S, by and through Next Friend Jane Doe III; H. W. S., by and through","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Next Friend John Doe VIII","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Plaintiffs - Appellants","paragraphs":["para_16"]},{"title":"Eric Olson, Colonel, Superintendent, Missouri State Highway Patrol","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Defendant","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"David A. Flannigan, Major, Commander, Missouri State Highway Patrol;","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Christopher S. Jolly, Captain, Division Director of Missouri State Highway Patrol","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Defendants - Appellees","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Michael L. Parson, Governor, State of Missouri","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Defendant","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Michael A. Turner, Colonel, Superintendent, Missouri Highway Patrol, Substituted","paragraphs":["para_25"]},{"title":"Defendant - Appellee","paragraphs":["para_27","para_28"]},{"title":"Appeal from United States District Court","paragraphs":["para_30","para_31"]},{"title":"Submitted: April 14, 2026","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Filed: October 5, 2026","paragraphs":["para_34","para_35","para_36","para_37"]},{"title":"The plaintiffs commenced this action raising thirteen constitutional claims","paragraphs":["para_39","para_40","para_41"]},{"title":"(collectively, “the Does”) and their spouses and children (collectively, “family","paragraphs":["para_43"]},{"title":"Patrol (“MSHP”) employees involved in implementing provisions of Mo. SORA","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(collectively, “the MSHP defendants”). The district court1 denied some claims","paragraphs":["para_46","para_47","para_48","para_49"]},{"title":"I. BACKGROUND","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Congress began enacting laws requiring sex offenders to register with law","paragraphs":["para_52"]},{"title":"1The Honorable Beth Phillips, then Chief Judge, now United States District","paragraphs":["para_54","para_55","para_56","para_57","para_58","para_59"]},{"title":"Like the federal laws, the purposes of Missouri’s sex offender registration laws are","paragraphs":["para_61","para_62"]},{"title":"833, 839 (Mo. 2006) (en banc) (cleaned up). Since its initial enactment, the Missouri","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"General Assembly has amended its version of Megan’s Law (Mo. SORA) several","paragraphs":["para_65","para_66"]},{"title":"Mo. SORA requires individuals convicted of specified offenses to register in","paragraphs":["para_68","para_69","para_70","para_71","para_72","para_73","para_74"]},{"title":"Missouri’s sexual offender program. Id. § 589.407.1(1). Registrants must also","paragraphs":["para_76","para_77","para_78"]},{"title":"MSHP. Id. § 589.407.1","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"2Congress has since enacted a more comprehensive system for sex offender","paragraphs":["para_81"]},{"title":"Nicole Kanka, and Pam Lychner Sex Offender Registration and Notification","paragraphs":["para_83","para_84"]},{"title":"After the form is completed, local law enforcement officials forward the","paragraphs":["para_86"]},{"title":"Enforcement System (“MULES”). Id. § 589.410. MULES is available to members","paragraphs":["para_88","para_89","para_90","para_91","para_92"]},{"title":"The Does challenge Mo. SORA’s current scheme, which categorizes sex","paragraphs":["para_94","para_95","para_96","para_97","para_98","para_99","para_100","para_101"]},{"title":"After registering their information, subject to limited exceptions, registrants","paragraphs":["para_103","para_104","para_105","para_106","para_107","para_108","para_109","para_110"]},{"title":"3After a specified time period, Tier I and II offenders can petition a court to","paragraphs":["para_112","para_113"]},{"title":"The Does contend Mo. SORA infringes on their constitutional rights by","paragraphs":["para_115","para_116","para_117","para_118","para_119","para_120","para_121","para_122","para_123","para_124"]},{"title":"As to the Does’ claims, the district court concluded their Eighth Amendment","paragraphs":["para_126"]},{"title":"With regard to the Does’ void-for-vagueness challenge to registering their online","paragraphs":["para_128","para_129","para_130","para_131","para_132","para_133"]},{"title":"Amendment, the parties accepted the court’s proposed remedy to order modification","paragraphs":["para_135"]},{"title":"On appeal, the Does assert the district court erred in the following ways: (1)","paragraphs":["para_137"]},{"title":"Ex Post Facto Clause claims; (2) when it did not accept their assertions as true and","paragraphs":["para_139","para_140","para_141"]},{"title":"SORA requiring reporting of online identifiers is unconstitutionally vague; and (5)","paragraphs":["para_143","para_144","para_145","para_146"]},{"title":"II. DISCUSSION","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"The Does and their family members have asserted a variety of constitutional","paragraphs":["para_149","para_150"]},{"title":"SORA is unconstitutional as well as an order enjoining enforcement and removing","paragraphs":["para_152","para_153","para_154"]},{"title":"SORA, as-applied challenges, or both. The MSHP defendants reiterated the","paragraphs":["para_156","para_157","para_158","para_159","para_160","para_161","para_162","para_163","para_164","para_165"]},{"title":"1. Family Members’ Claims","paragraphs":["para_167"]},{"title":"SORA violates not only the constitutional rights of registered sex offenders, but the","paragraphs":["para_169","para_170","para_171"]},{"title":"Because so many of the Does’ arguments rely on impacts on their families, we","paragraphs":["para_173"]},{"title":"In their complaint, the Does allege harms related to family members never","paragraphs":["para_175","para_176","para_177","para_178","para_179","para_180","para_181","para_182","para_183","para_184"]},{"title":"The record does not support the Does’ claim that the district court sua sponte","paragraphs":["para_186","para_187","para_188","para_189","para_190","para_191","para_192","para_193","para_194","para_195"]},{"title":"4The family members also challenge the district court’s exclusion of their","paragraphs":["para_197","para_198","para_199","para_200","para_201","para_202","para_203","para_204"]},{"title":"In their brief to this Court, the Does do not cite a case supporting their theory","paragraphs":["para_206","para_207","para_208","para_209","para_210","para_211","para_212","para_213","para_214"]},{"title":"2. Eighth Amendment Claim","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"After holding a bench trial, the district court granted judgment in favor of the","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"MSHP defendants on the Does’ Eighth Amendment claim. The court determined","paragraphs":["para_218","para_219","para_220","para_221","para_222"]},{"title":"The Eighth Amendment prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel","paragraphs":["para_224","para_225","para_226"]},{"title":"700, 723 n.6 (8th Cir. 2005). The first three issues in the Does’ statement of issues","paragraphs":["para_228"]},{"title":"Amendment. We do not believe that Mo. SORA is punitive when considered in such","paragraphs":["para_230","para_231","para_232","para_233"]},{"title":"The Supreme Court has identified two categories of punishment that meet the","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Eighth Amendment’s “cruel and unusual” standard, which are: (1) “modes or acts of","paragraphs":["para_236"]},{"title":"Ford v. Wainwright, 477 U.S. 399, 405 (1986); and (2) modes of punishment which","paragraphs":["para_238","para_239","para_240","para_241"]},{"title":"The Eighth Amendment specifically provides: “Excessive bail shall not be","paragraphs":["para_243"]},{"title":"This language is virtually identical to the language found in the English Bill of","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Rights of 1689 and the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776.6 Similar clauses","paragraphs":["para_246"]},{"title":"By the time the Eighth Amendment became operative, it was broadly understood","paragraphs":["para_248","para_249"]},{"title":"5The analysis of whether or not a legislative act is punitive requires the","paragraphs":["para_251","para_252"]},{"title":"Doe, 538 U.S. 84, 97 (2003)). We believe, consistent with the Missouri Supreme","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Court’s decision in Doe v. Olson, 696 S.W. 3d 320, 330 (Mo. 2024) (en banc), reh’g","paragraphs":["para_255","para_256","para_257","para_258"]},{"title":"6Both the English Bill of Rights of 1689 and the Virginia Declaration of","paragraphs":["para_260","para_261","para_262"]},{"title":"The Original Meaning”. As the Supreme Court has indicated, the framers","paragraphs":["para_264","para_265"]},{"title":"U.S. 35, 48 (2008). Examples include “torture or a lingering death.” Id. The Does","paragraphs":["para_267","para_268"]},{"title":"Whether this is even a “method of punishment” as contemplated by the","paragraphs":["para_270","para_271","para_272","para_273","para_274","para_275","para_276"]},{"title":"Faced with this reality, the Does properly focus on the second, post-Weems","paragraphs":["para_278","para_279"]},{"title":"Smith, 538 U.S. 84, they made no allegation or assertion similar to the level of harm","paragraphs":["para_281","para_282","para_283","para_284","para_285","para_286","para_287","para_288","para_289","para_290","para_291","para_292","para_293","para_294"]},{"title":"Cruel and unusual punishment can also be shown under a “narrow","paragraphs":["para_296"]},{"title":"Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957, 996-97 (1991) (Kennedy, J., concurring in part","paragraphs":["para_298","para_299","para_300","para_301","para_302","para_303","para_304","para_305"]},{"title":"The Does assert two reasons that Mo. SORA is grossly disproportionate: (1)","paragraphs":["para_307","para_308","para_309","para_310","para_311"]},{"title":"Statutory schemes involving offense-based assignment of sex offenders to","paragraphs":["para_313"]},{"title":"See, e.g., Doe v. Settle, 24 F.4th 932, 936 (4th Cir. 2022); Does I-7 v. Abbott, 945","paragraphs":["para_315","para_316"]},{"title":"State v. Blankenship, 48 N.E.3d 516, 518 (Ohio 2015); Helman v. State, 784 A.2d","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"1058, 1064 (Del. 2001). When considering whether to adopt a categorical rule","paragraphs":["para_319","para_320","para_321","para_322","para_323","para_324","para_325","para_326"]},{"title":"Amendment’s text, history, meaning, and purpose. Graham, 560 U.S. at 61","paragraphs":["para_328"]},{"title":"The Does cannot satisfy either step in the process. They have not shown the","paragraphs":["para_330","para_331","para_332","para_333"]},{"title":"Like its federal counterpart, Mo. SORA groups sex offenders into tiers based","paragraphs":["para_335"]},{"title":"Compare 34 U.S.C. §§ 20911, 20915, with Mo. Rev. Stat. § 589.414.5-.7. When","paragraphs":["para_337","para_338"]},{"title":"Ct. App. 2019). In 2018, the statute was amended to create three tiers, with Tier III","paragraphs":["para_340","para_341","para_342","para_343","para_344"]},{"title":"App. 2020). By way of examples, Tier I offenses include first-degree sexual abuse","paragraphs":["para_346","para_347","para_348","para_349","para_350","para_351","para_352"]},{"title":"This level of identification of specific offenses and categorization indicates","paragraphs":["para_354","para_355","para_356","para_357"]},{"title":"These are the precise types of policy decisions the Missouri legislature is empowered","paragraphs":["para_359","para_360","para_361","para_362","para_363"]},{"title":"While the Does also claimed disproportionality due to the lack of a registration","paragraphs":["para_365","para_366"]},{"title":"Missouri General Assembly’s view that registration requirements designed to notify","paragraphs":["para_368","para_369","para_370","para_371","para_372","para_373"]},{"title":"(cleaned up). The Does’ mere assertion that Mo. SORA is grossly disproportionate","paragraphs":["para_375","para_376","para_377","para_378","para_379"]},{"title":"7The Does acknowledge in their complaint that Missouri lawmakers are","paragraphs":["para_381","para_382","para_383"]},{"title":"3. Ex Post Facto Clause Claim","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"The viability of the Does’ Ex Post Facto clause claim is called into serious","paragraphs":["para_386"]},{"title":"Supreme Court’s decision in Olson, 696 S.W. 3d at 330 (Mo. 2024). Both the","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Missouri and United States Constitutions prohibit ex post facto laws. Whether the","paragraphs":["para_389"]},{"title":"Supreme Court analyzed Mo. SORA applying the non-exhaustive Mendoza-","paragraphs":["para_391","para_392","para_393","para_394"]},{"title":"(4) has a rational connection to a nonpunitive purpose; or (5) is excessive with","paragraphs":["para_396"]},{"title":"We have carefully reviewed the analysis performed by the Missouri Supreme","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Court as it applies to Mo. SORA and find its analysis thorough and persuasive and","paragraphs":["para_399","para_400","para_401"]},{"title":"4. Due Process and Equal Protection Claims","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"The Does’ complaint contains a total of seven separate counts alleging various","paragraphs":["para_404","para_405","para_406","para_407"]},{"title":"Counts V and VI allege a due process claim and an equal protection claim because","paragraphs":["para_409"]},{"title":"Counts VII and VIII allege substantive due process claims based on interference","paragraphs":["para_411","para_412","para_413","para_414","para_415","para_416"]},{"title":"The Does’ chief complaint regarding the dismissal of their claims is a general","paragraphs":["para_418","para_419"]},{"title":"Forks, 614 F.3d 495, 497 (8th Cir. 2010). When considering if a claim has been","paragraphs":["para_421","para_422","para_423"]},{"title":"A valid substantive due process claim requires a plaintiff to show a defendant","paragraphs":["para_425","para_426","para_427","para_428","para_429","para_430"]},{"title":"Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 302 (1993)). The rights asserted by the Does include a lack of","paragraphs":["para_432","para_433","para_434","para_435","para_436","para_437"]},{"title":"Similarly, the district court found that the Does, at most, showed incidental effects","paragraphs":["para_439","para_440","para_441","para_442","para_443","para_444","para_445","para_446","para_447","para_448","para_449","para_450"]},{"title":"The district court did not err when it dismissed the Does’ substantive due process","paragraphs":["para_452"]},{"title":"Regarding the equal protection component of the Does’ claims, the district","paragraphs":["para_454","para_455","para_456"]},{"title":"Tier III registrants (1) have been convicted of sex crimes involving the use of force;","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(2) have committed sex crimes against children or vulnerable persons; (3) were","paragraphs":["para_459","para_460","para_461"]},{"title":"Further, this Court has explained: “A classification that neither implicates a","paragraphs":["para_463","para_464","para_465","para_466","para_467","para_468"]},{"title":"The district court found rational basis review applies because the restrictions","paragraphs":["para_470","para_471","para_472","para_473","para_474","para_475","para_476","para_477","para_478","para_479","para_480","para_481"]},{"title":"In terms of the substance of their claim, the only case the Does point us to is","paragraphs":["para_483"]},{"title":"(S.C. 2021), which involves a dissimilar sex offender registration scheme. When","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Powell was decided, South Carolina’s SORA, unlike Missouri’s scheme, imposed","paragraphs":["para_486","para_487","para_488","para_489","para_490"]},{"title":"The concerns identified in Powell are ameliorated when a legislature tailors","paragraphs":["para_492","para_493"]},{"title":"Powell was decided, South Carolina’s legislature amended its SORA to create a","paragraphs":["para_495"]},{"title":"Following the amendment, the South Carolina Supreme Court expressly rejected a","paragraphs":["para_497","para_498"]},{"title":"The Does’ complaint does not show the existence of a classification system","paragraphs":["para_500","para_501","para_502","para_503","para_504"]},{"title":"5. Count XI – First Amendment Freedom of Speech & Association","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Count XI of the Does’ complaint is titled First Amendment Freedom of","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Speech & Association. They allege that Mo. SORA’s requirement that registrants","paragraphs":["para_508","para_509"]},{"title":"SORA chills protected speech because registrants are reluctant to engage in online","paragraphs":["para_511","para_512","para_513","para_514","para_515","para_516","para_517"]},{"title":"The district court, in its order addressing the MSHP defendants’ motion for","paragraphs":["para_519","para_520"]},{"title":"First Amendment because it burdens and chills Plaintiffs’ ability to engage in online","paragraphs":["para_522","para_523","para_524","para_525","para_526"]},{"title":"XIII, and (2) because the MSHP defendants were not entitled to judgment on the","paragraphs":["para_528","para_529","para_530"]},{"title":"In the proceedings below, at no time did the Does contest or seek to correct a","paragraphs":["para_532","para_533","para_534","para_535","para_536","para_537","para_538","para_539","para_540","para_541","para_542","para_543","para_544","para_545"]},{"title":"Further, the Does do not contest the overlapping nature of their claims and","paragraphs":["para_547","para_548","para_549","para_550","para_551","para_552","para_553","para_554","para_555","para_556","para_557"]},{"title":"A review of the record belies the Does’ claim that the district court refused to","paragraphs":["para_559","para_560","para_561","para_562"]},{"title":"6. Vagueness Challenge to “Online Identifiers”","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Count X alleges Mo. SORA is overly broad and vague because the definition","paragraphs":["para_565"]},{"title":"This claim proceeded to trial. After hearing and weighing the evidence, the district","paragraphs":["para_567","para_568","para_569","para_570","para_571"]},{"title":"Individuals subject to Mo. SORA must register their “online identifiers” with","paragraphs":["para_573","para_574","para_575","para_576","para_577","para_578","para_579","para_580"]},{"title":"Because registrants do not have to guess as to what information is required to comply","paragraphs":["para_582"]},{"title":"8The Does also allege the information that must be registered with law","paragraphs":["para_584","para_585","para_586","para_587","para_588","para_589","para_590","para_591"]},{"title":"Mo. SORA requires individuals to report to law enforcement any “online","paragraphs":["para_593","para_594","para_595","para_596"]},{"title":"Section 43.651.1 lists four categories of information and provides examples of items","paragraphs":["para_598","para_599","para_600","para_601","para_602"]},{"title":"The Does did not refute the MSHP defendant’s contention that the interpretive","paragraphs":["para_604","para_605","para_606","para_607"]},{"title":"United States, 603 U.S. 480, 487 (2024). This invokes consideration of two","paragraphs":["para_609"]},{"title":"First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word given more","paragraphs":["para_611","para_612","para_613","para_614","para_615","para_616","para_617","para_618"]},{"title":"Here, the clause “other identity information” is a general phrase that follows","paragraphs":["para_620","para_621","para_622","para_623","para_624","para_625","para_626","para_627"]},{"title":"The Does have also not shown that those required to register under Mo. SORA","paragraphs":["para_629","para_630","para_631","para_632","para_633","para_634","para_635"]},{"title":"First, because we assume that man is free to steer between lawful and","paragraphs":["para_637","para_638","para_639","para_640","para_641","para_642","para_643","para_644","para_645"]},{"title":"Village of Hoffman Estates v. Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S. 489, 498","paragraphs":["para_647"]},{"title":"Although the void-for-vagueness doctrine focuses on both notice to citizens and","paragraphs":["para_649","para_650","para_651","para_652"]},{"title":"Here, none of these considerations tip in favor of the Does. Mo. SORA puts","paragraphs":["para_654","para_655","para_656","para_657"]},{"title":"Does have not argued that the information requested by the MSHP goes beyond the","paragraphs":["para_659","para_660","para_661"]},{"title":"The use of a standardized form ameliorates concerns pertaining to lack of","paragraphs":["para_663","para_664","para_665","para_666","para_667"]},{"title":"At most, the Does have asserted a theoretical concern that is insufficient to conclude","paragraphs":["para_669"]},{"title":"III. CONCLUSION","paragraphs":["para_671","para_672"]}],"paragraphs":[{"text":"United States Court of Appeals","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"For the Eighth Circuit","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"___________________________","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"No. 25-1892","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"___________________________","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"Jane Does, 1-11; Jane Doe, XII; John Does, 1-15; John Doe, XVI; J.G., by and","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"through Next Friend Jane Doe I; C.C., by and through Next Friend Jane Doe II;","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"K.P., by and through Next Friend Jane Doe X; S.P., by and through Next Friend","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"Jane Doe X; S.C.L.R. I, by and through Next Friend John Doe I; S.C.L.R. II, by","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"and through Next Friend John Doe I; S.C.L.R. III, by and through Next Friend","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"John Doe I; C. C., by and through Next Friend John Doe VI; H.P.S., by and","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"through Next Friend John Doe VIII; H. P. S., by and through Next Friend Jane Doe","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"III; H.W.S, by and through Next Friend Jane Doe III; H. W. S., by and through","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"Next Friend John Doe VIII","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"Plaintiffs - Appellants","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"v.","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"Eric Olson, Colonel, Superintendent, Missouri State Highway Patrol","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"Defendant","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"David A. Flannigan, Major, Commander, Missouri State Highway Patrol;","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"Christopher S. Jolly, Captain, Division Director of Missouri State Highway Patrol","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"Defendants - Appellees","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"Michael L. Parson, Governor, State of Missouri","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"Defendant","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"Michael A. Turner, Colonel, Superintendent, Missouri Highway Patrol, Substituted","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"for Party Eric T Olson per order in ME #230","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"Defendant - Appellee","paragraph_id":"para_26"},{"text":"____________","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"-2-","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"Appeal from United States District Court","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"for the Western District of Missouri - Jefferson City","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"____________","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"Submitted: April 14, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"Filed: October 5, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"____________","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"Before GRUENDER, BENTON, and ERICKSON, Circuit Judges.","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"____________","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"ERICKSON, Circuit Judge.","paragraph_id":"para_37"},{"text":"The plaintiffs commenced this action raising thirteen constitutional claims","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"related to Missouri’s Sex Offender Registration Act (“Mo. SORA”), Mo. Rev. Stat.","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"§ 589.400 et seq. The sixteen Doe plaintiffs consist of persons who have been","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"convicted of a crime requiring them to register as a sex offender under Mo. SORA","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"(collectively, “the Does”) and their spouses and children (collectively, “family","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"members”). The Does and their family members sued Missouri State Highway","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"Patrol (“MSHP”) employees involved in implementing provisions of Mo. SORA","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"(collectively, “the MSHP defendants”). The district court1 denied some claims","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"following a review of the merits and dismissed other claims because they did not","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"state a plausible claim. The Does and family members appeal the adverse decisions","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"relating to the denial of their Eighth Amendment, Ex Post Facto, First Amendment,","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"Due Process, and Equal Protection claims. We affirm.","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"I. BACKGROUND","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"Congress began enacting laws requiring sex offenders to register with law","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"enforcement after seven-year-old Megan Kanka was raped and murdered by a","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"1The Honorable Beth Phillips, then Chief Judge, now United States District","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"Judge for the Western District of Missouri.","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"-3-","paragraph_id":"para_55"},{"text":"neighbor who, unknown to Kanka’s family, had prior convictions for sex offenses","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"against children (termed “Megan’s Law”).2 By 1996, every State had enacted a","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"variation of Megan’s Law.","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"Missouri’s first version of Megan’s Law became effective on January 1, 1995.","paragraph_id":"para_59"},{"text":"Like the federal laws, the purposes of Missouri’s sex offender registration laws are","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"“to protect children from violence at the hands of sex offenders, and to respond to","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"the known danger of recidivism among sex offenders.” Doe v. Phillips, 194 S.W.3d","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"833, 839 (Mo. 2006) (en banc) (cleaned up). Since its initial enactment, the Missouri","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"General Assembly has amended its version of Megan’s Law (Mo. SORA) several","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"times. The Does assert nearly 20,000 individuals are on Missouri’s sex offender","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"registry, making it the fourth largest registry in the country.","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"Mo. SORA requires individuals convicted of specified offenses to register in","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"person with the chief law enforcement official in the county or city where they reside","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"“within three business days of adjudication, release from incarceration, or placement","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"upon probation.” Mo. Rev. Stat. § 589.400.2. Registration requirements direct the","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"individual to provide a written statement containing their name, address, date of","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"birth, social security number, phone number, any online identifiers, license plate","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"number(s) and vehicles description(s), employment details, school enrollments, a","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"description of the offense requiring registration, and whether they completed","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"Missouri’s sexual offender program. Id. § 589.407.1(1). Registrants must also","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"provide their fingerprints, a current photograph, and a DNA sample (if not already","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"provided). Id. § 589.407.1(2)-(4). Registrants are to provide the required","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"information on a form developed by the MSHP or another format approved by the","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"MSHP. Id. § 589.407.1","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"2Congress has since enacted a more comprehensive system for sex offender","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"registration and community notification, enacting the “Jacob Wetterling, Megan","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"Nicole Kanka, and Pam Lychner Sex Offender Registration and Notification","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"Program.” 34 U.S.C. § 20902 et seq.","paragraph_id":"para_83"},{"text":"-4-","paragraph_id":"para_84"},{"text":"After the form is completed, local law enforcement officials forward the","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"information to the MSHP where it is then entered into the Missouri Uniform Law","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"Enforcement System (“MULES”). Id. § 589.410. MULES is available to members","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"of the criminal justice system and other entities as provided by law. Id. The MSHP","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"maintains a public registry of sex offenders, which contains some, but not all, of the","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"information required to be reported. Id. § 43.650.2. Mo. SORA authorizes the","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"operation by local law enforcement of a similar searchable public website and/or","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"publication of certain specified information in the local newspaper. Id. § 589.402.","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"The Does challenge Mo. SORA’s current scheme, which categorizes sex","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"offenders into tiers based on the statute of conviction for their underlying","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"registerable offense. Id. § 589.414.5-.7. No individualized risk assessment is","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"undertaken. The different tiers set forth the length of time individuals must remain","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"on the registry3 and the frequency in which they must report in person to the chief","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"law enforcement official to verify their information—Tier I offenders remain on the","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"registry for 15 years and must report annually; Tier II offenders for 25 years and","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"must report semiannually; and Tier III offenders stay on the registry for life and","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"report every 90 days. Id. §§ 589.400.4 & 589.414.5-.7","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"After registering their information, subject to limited exceptions, registrants","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"must report changes within three business days. Id. § 589.414.1-.2. Some, but not","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"all, changes must be reported in person. Id. The statute also requires that changes","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"to or use of a new online identifier be reported to the chief law enforcement officer","paragraph_id":"para_105"},{"text":"before the registrant can use the new identifier. Id. § 589.414.9. “Online identifier”","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"is defined under Missouri law as an “electronic mail address and instant message","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"screen name, user ID, cell phone number or wireless communication device number","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"or identifier, chat or other internet communication name, or other identity","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"information.” Id. § 43.651.1(4).","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"3After a specified time period, Tier I and II offenders can petition a court to","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"have their name removed early from the registry. Id. § 589.401.1 & .4.","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"-5-","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"The Does contend Mo. SORA infringes on their constitutional rights by","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"imposing unnecessary burdens and by placing unreasonable restraints on them,","paragraph_id":"para_115"},{"text":"which also causes traceable injury and harm to their family members. The district","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"court resolved all claims in three sequential orders—an order on the MSHP","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"defendants’ motion for judgment on the pleadings, an order on the parties’ cross-","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"summary judgment motions, and an order/final judgment following a two-day bench","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"trial. The district court dismissed the family members’ claims because they are not","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"required to register or take any action under Mo. SORA. The court also declined to","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"consider the effects of Mo. SORA on the family members, finding their situation and","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"experiences are irrelevant to the issue of whether Mo. SORA is “punishment” within","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"the meaning of the Eighth Amendment or the Ex Post Facto Clause.","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"As to the Does’ claims, the district court concluded their Eighth Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"and Ex Post Facto claims were not cognizable because Mo. SORA is not punitive.","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"With regard to the Does’ void-for-vagueness challenge to registering their online","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"identifiers, the court found the phrase “other identity information” is not","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"unconstitutionally vague because the MSHP form expressly lists the information that","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"must be furnished. The court also found the Does failed to adequately plead a","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"cognizable due process or equal protection claim. Lastly, after finding the","paragraph_id":"para_131"},{"text":"prohibition on use of online identifiers before they are registered with law","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"enforcement is an unconstitutional prior restraint on speech in violation of the First","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"Amendment, the parties accepted the court’s proposed remedy to order modification","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"of the MSHP form to remove that requirement.","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"On appeal, the Does assert the district court erred in the following ways: (1)","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"when it found Mo. SORA is not punitive and denied their Eighth Amendment and","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"Ex Post Facto Clause claims; (2) when it did not accept their assertions as true and","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"applied the wrong standard to their due process and equal protection claims; (3)","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"when it found their First Amendment overbreadth claim was inadequately pled and","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"refused to consider it; (4) when it rejected their claim that the provision of Mo.","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"SORA requiring reporting of online identifiers is unconstitutionally vague; and (5)","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"when it “sua sponte” dismissed the family members’ claims. Having carefully","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"-6-","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"considered each of their claims, we find no error in the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_145"},{"text":"determinations.","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"II. DISCUSSION","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"The Does and their family members have asserted a variety of constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"claims implicating the First Amendment, the Eighth Amendment, the Ex Post Facto","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"Clause, and the Fourteenth Amendment. For relief, they seek a declaration that Mo.","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"SORA is unconstitutional as well as an order enjoining enforcement and removing","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"their names from Missouri’s sex offender registry. In attempting to sort through the","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"numerous claims, the district court noted in its final order that there had been","paragraph_id":"para_153"},{"text":"“significant discussion” as to whether the Does are asserting facial challenges to Mo.","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"SORA, as-applied challenges, or both. The MSHP defendants reiterated the","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"confusion and blending of issues in their brief to this Court, contending that even at","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"this stage of the litigation, the Does have not clearly indicated which arguments","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"relate to which counts and what issues on appeal relate to an as-applied challenge, a","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"facial challenge, or both. The Does responded by stating in a footnote that they are","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"asserting both as-applied and facial challenges but offer no clarifying explanation,","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"contending instead that the label used by a litigant is not what matters, it “is the","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"remedy that is employed by the Court” that matters. As mystifying as this contention","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"is, we need not resolve the imprecision and confusion because the Does have failed","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"to establish Mo. SORA violates any of their asserted constitutional rights, either in","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"its general application or in any of their particular circumstances.","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"1. Family Members’ Claims","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"The Does assert that from the beginning of the litigation, they alleged Mo.","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"SORA violates not only the constitutional rights of registered sex offenders, but the","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":"constitutional rights of immediate family members as well. The Does claim the","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"-7-","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"district court improperly dismissed the family members’ claims sua sponte.4","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"Because so many of the Does’ arguments rely on impacts on their families, we","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"consider this issue first.","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"In their complaint, the Does allege harms related to family members never","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"named as a party in this action. As to those that are named, the overriding harms","paragraph_id":"para_175"},{"text":"include loss of friendships, social ostracism, and fear about community reprisals. In","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"particular, the children allege they were “shunned” by other families and neighbors","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"due to their parent’s status on the sex offender registry, they were harassed by fellow","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"students, they were “robbed of a better education” because schools refused to allow","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"registered sex offenders on school property, and they missed out on having their","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"mom or dad attend their activities. One spouse alleges she lost a job opportunity","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"after the employer discovered she lived at the same address as a registered sex","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"offender and another spouse alleges she suffers extreme stress from dealing with","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"their children’s activities and tasks alone.","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"The record does not support the Does’ claim that the district court sua sponte","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"and without explanation dismissed the family members’ claims. During the","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"proceedings, the district court noted that most of the evidence from family members","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"focused on location restrictions for registered sex offenders, which is not governed","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"by any provision in Mo. SORA. The court found that the impact registration has on","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"family members is irrelevant because the analysis must focus on the person directly","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"affected by Mo. SORA. And since Mo. SORA has no provisions directed at family","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"members of sex offenders, the court further explained that incidental effects on","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"family members are immaterial to the constitutional issues before the court. The","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"court further highlighted that the Does had not cited any authority suggesting the","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"effects on a registered sex offender’s family is a factor to be considered when","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"4The family members also challenge the district court’s exclusion of their","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"evidence related to the punitive impact of Mo. SORA on them. This issue has been","paragraph_id":"para_197"},{"text":"rendered immaterial by our disposition of their Eighth Amendment claim on the","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"second prong—the Does’ failure to show the statute is barbaric or grossly","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"disproportionate.","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"-8-","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"analyzing the constitutionality of Mo. SORA. For these reasons, the district court","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"declined to consider the family members’ allegations or evidence and formally","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"dismissed their claims in its final post-trial order.","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"In their brief to this Court, the Does do not cite a case supporting their theory","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"that family members who are incidentally affected by Mo. SORA have a plausible","paragraph_id":"para_206"},{"text":"constitutional claim. Nor did they articulate any flaws in the district court’s findings","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"or conclusions. Instead, they assert that due process provides for the right to be","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"heard, and dismissal of the family members’ claims was inappropriate because it is","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"not patently obvious from the complaint or the record below that the family members","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"could not prevail on a constitutional claim. The Does have not pointed us to any","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"controlling or persuasive legal authority supporting their claims or articulated any","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"specific error in the district court’s analysis. The district court did not err when it","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"dismissed the family members’ claims.","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"2. Eighth Amendment Claim","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"After holding a bench trial, the district court granted judgment in favor of the","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"MSHP defendants on the Does’ Eighth Amendment claim. The court determined","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"that Mo. SORA is not “punishment,” that the Does failed to allege in their complaint","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"the statute is barbaric, and that none of the evidence presented at trial persuaded the","paragraph_id":"para_219"},{"text":"court that Mo. SORA is sufficiently disproportionate. We review the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"factual findings for clear error and its legal conclusions de novo. Johnson v.","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"Hutchinson, 44 F.4th 1116, 1118 (8th Cir. 2022).","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"The Eighth Amendment prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"and unusual punishments. U.S. Const. amend. VIII. For a punishment to quality as","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"“cruel and unusual,” it must be “barbaric or grossly disproportionate” to the offense","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"committed. See Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S. 48, 59 (2010); Doe v. Miller, 405 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"700, 723 n.6 (8th Cir. 2005). The first three issues in the Does’ statement of issues","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"concern whether Mo. SORA is punitive as the term is understood under the Eighth","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"Amendment. We do not believe that Mo. SORA is punitive when considered in such","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"-9-","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"a light.5 But to violate the constitution, the Does must show both that the law is","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"punitive and that it is “cruel and unusual” within the meaning of Eighth Amendment.","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"At this point, the Does’ Eighth Amendment claim necessarily fails.","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"The Supreme Court has identified two categories of punishment that meet the","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"Eighth Amendment’s “cruel and unusual” standard, which are: (1) “modes or acts of","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"punishment” considered cruel and unusual at the time the Bill of Rights was adopted,","paragraph_id":"para_236"},{"text":"Ford v. Wainwright, 477 U.S. 399, 405 (1986); and (2) modes of punishment which","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"are inconsistent with modern “standards of decency,” as demonstrated by “objective","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"evidence of how our society views a particular punishment today,” with the “clearest","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"and most reliable” evidence being legislation, Penry v. Lynaugh, 492 U.S. 302, 330-","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"31 (1989).","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"The Eighth Amendment specifically provides: “Excessive bail shall not be","paragraph_id":"para_242"},{"text":"required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.”","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"This language is virtually identical to the language found in the English Bill of","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"Rights of 1689 and the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776.6 Similar clauses","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"were found in the constitutions of eight states and the Northwest Ordinance of 1791.","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"By the time the Eighth Amendment became operative, it was broadly understood","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"that the cruel and unusual punishment clause was directed at certain methods of","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"punishment. Anthony Granucci, “Nor Cruel and Unusual Punishments Inflicted:","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"5The analysis of whether or not a legislative act is punitive requires the","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"consideration of the non-exhaustive factors set forth in Kennedy v. Mendoza-","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"Martinez, 372 U.S. 144, 168-169 (1963). Miller, 405 F.3d at 719 (citing Smith v.","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"Doe, 538 U.S. 84, 97 (2003)). We believe, consistent with the Missouri Supreme","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"Court’s decision in Doe v. Olson, 696 S.W. 3d 320, 330 (Mo. 2024) (en banc), reh’g","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"denied (Oct. 1, 2024), that such analysis yields a conclusion that Mo. SORA is not","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"punitive but a further elucidation of that analysis is unnecessary given our conclusion","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"that the Does cannot show punishment that is “cruel and unusual” within the","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"meaning of the Eighth Amendment.","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"6Both the English Bill of Rights of 1689 and the Virginia Declaration of","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"Rights of 1776 provide, in relevant part: “That excessive bail ought not be required,","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"nor excessive fines imposed nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.”","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"-10-","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"The Original Meaning”. As the Supreme Court has indicated, the framers","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"understood that “the deliberate infliction of pain for the sake of pain” is a common","paragraph_id":"para_264"},{"text":"aspect of punishments found to be constitutionally forbidden. Baze v. Rees, 553","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"U.S. 35, 48 (2008). Examples include “torture or a lingering death.” Id. The Does","paragraph_id":"para_266"},{"text":"have not identified any conduct by the MSHP defendants beyond the mere","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"assembling and publishing of information, as required in Mo. SORA.","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"Whether this is even a “method of punishment” as contemplated by the","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"framers of the constitution is a debatable proposition, but it is certainly not a method","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"that would have been deemed cruel and unusual as the term was understood by the","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"framers. Until well into the 19th century, criminal sentences could involve:","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"confinement at hard labor under conditions that would be deeply offensive to modern","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"sensibilities; corporal punishment including flogging, caning and branding, public","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"execution; and in some states, transportation as part of a chain gang to work on","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"public works or rented as slave labor for private interests at public profit.","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"Faced with this reality, the Does properly focus on the second, post-Weems","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"category—that Mo. SORA is inconsistent with modern standards of decency. While","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"they emphasize societal and technological changes since the Supreme Court decided","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"Smith, 538 U.S. 84, they made no allegation or assertion similar to the level of harm","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"courts have determined to be constitutionally forbidden. They claim Mo. SORA is","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"“barbaric and torturous” because: (1) it effectively renders them and their families","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"“lepers who are routinely harassed, discriminated against, and excluded from their","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"respective communities[,]” and (2) it essentially amounts to “branding” but without","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"the physical defacement of a person’s body. The Does have not explained how the","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"law would have been considered cruel and unusual at the Founding or why it is","paragraph_id":"para_286"},{"text":"inconsistent with modern standards of decency. Moreover, the Does have not","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"convinced us that societal changes, such as broader access to the Internet and","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"increased reliance on digital technology, have critically undermined or wholly","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"upended precedent analyzing the parameters of “cruel and unusual” punishments.","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"Even if Missouri’s sex offender registration scheme was construed to be punitive,","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"-11-","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"which we need not decide, the Does have failed to show Mo. SORA is barbaric","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"within the meaning of the Eighth Amendment.","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"Cruel and unusual punishment can also be shown under a “narrow","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"proportionality principle.” Ewing v. California, 538 U.S. 11, 20 (2003) (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957, 996-97 (1991) (Kennedy, J., concurring in part","paragraph_id":"para_297"},{"text":"and concurring in the judgment)). This principle is narrow because a state’s policy","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"choices and sentencing rationales are generally left to state legislatures, not federal","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"courts. Id. at 25. In other words, federal courts reviewing a state’s sentencing","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"scheme “do not sit as a ‘superlegislature’ to second-guess [the state’s] policy","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"choices.” Id. at 28. “It is exceedingly rare for an offense that does not have a capital","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"sentence to violate the Eighth Amendment.” United States v. Scott, 831 F.3d 1027,","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"1034 (8th Cir. 2016) (quoting United States v. Wiest, 596 F.3d 906, 911 (8th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"2010)).","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"The Does assert two reasons that Mo. SORA is grossly disproportionate: (1)","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"the scheme places offenders in one of three tiers based on the nature of their","paragraph_id":"para_307"},{"text":"underlying conviction without accounting for the “actual seriousness” of the offense","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"or the offender’s actual dangerousness; and (2) Missouri has no similar registration","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"system for other crimes. The district court determined the evidence presented did","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"not demonstrate Mo. SORA is sufficiently disproportionate. We agree.","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"Statutory schemes involving offense-based assignment of sex offenders to","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"tiers have withstood a myriad of constitutional challenges in state and federal courts.","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"See, e.g., Doe v. Settle, 24 F.4th 932, 936 (4th Cir. 2022); Does I-7 v. Abbott, 945","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"F.3d 307, 315 (5th Cir. 2019); People v. Kardasz, -- N.W.3d --, 2025 WL 3691966,","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"*1 (Mich. 2025) (en banc); State v. McSwain, 914 S.E.2d 124, 129-30 (S.C. 2025);","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"State v. Blankenship, 48 N.E.3d 516, 518 (Ohio 2015); Helman v. State, 784 A.2d","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"1058, 1064 (Del. 2001). When considering whether to adopt a categorical rule","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"prohibiting a particular practice, the Supreme Court has described a two-step","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"process: the first step involves looking at objective indicia of society’s standards, as","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"expressed in legislative enactments and state practice, to determine if a national","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"-12-","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"consensus against the challenged sentencing practice exists, and the second step","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"entails the court’s exercise of its own independent judgment to determine whether","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"the punishment violates the Constitution under the standards set forth in controlling","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"precedents and the court’s own understanding and interpretation of the Eighth","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"Amendment’s text, history, meaning, and purpose. Graham, 560 U.S. at 61","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"(quotations and citations omitted).","paragraph_id":"para_328"},{"text":"The Does cannot satisfy either step in the process. They have not shown the","paragraph_id":"para_329"},{"text":"existence of a national consensus against sex offender registration and notification","paragraph_id":"para_330"},{"text":"schemes like the one at issue here or even any likelihood that such a trend may","paragraph_id":"para_331"},{"text":"emerge. Nor have they convinced us that we should exercise our judgment and find","paragraph_id":"para_332"},{"text":"Mo. SORA violates the Eighth Amendment.","paragraph_id":"para_333"},{"text":"Like its federal counterpart, Mo. SORA groups sex offenders into tiers based","paragraph_id":"para_334"},{"text":"on their underlying offense, with lengthier registration requirements for higher tiers.","paragraph_id":"para_335"},{"text":"Compare 34 U.S.C. §§ 20911, 20915, with Mo. Rev. Stat. § 589.414.5-.7. When","paragraph_id":"para_336"},{"text":"originally enacted, Mo. SORA imposed a lifetime registration obligation, with","paragraph_id":"para_337"},{"text":"limited exceptions. Dixon v. Mo. State Highway Patrol, 583 S.W.3d 521, 525 (Mo.","paragraph_id":"para_338"},{"text":"Ct. App. 2019). In 2018, the statute was amended to create three tiers, with Tier III","paragraph_id":"para_339"},{"text":"encompassing the most severe offenses and subjecting offenders to a lifetime","paragraph_id":"para_340"},{"text":"registration requirement. Id. According to Missouri courts that have studied the","paragraph_id":"para_341"},{"text":"scheme, Tier I contains 15 of the least serious offenses, Tier II covers 13 offenses","paragraph_id":"para_342"},{"text":"and certain repeat offenders, and Tier III encompasses the 36 most severe offenses.","paragraph_id":"para_343"},{"text":"See, e.g., Hixson v. Mo. State Highway Patrol, 611 S.W.3d 923, 925-26 (Mo. Ct.","paragraph_id":"para_344"},{"text":"App. 2020). By way of examples, Tier I offenses include first-degree sexual abuse","paragraph_id":"para_345"},{"text":"of a person who is at least 18 years old, trafficking for the purpose of sexual","paragraph_id":"para_346"},{"text":"exploitation of a person who is at least 18 years old, and possession of child","paragraph_id":"para_347"},{"text":"pornography. In contrast, Tier III offenses include first- and second-degree rape,","paragraph_id":"para_348"},{"text":"first- and second-degree sexual trafficking of a child, and promoting the prostitution","paragraph_id":"para_349"},{"text":"of a person under age 18. Each tier consists of offenders that Missouri’s General","paragraph_id":"para_350"},{"text":"Assembly believed were similarly situated and should be treated similarly.","paragraph_id":"para_351"},{"text":"-13-","paragraph_id":"para_352"},{"text":"This level of identification of specific offenses and categorization indicates","paragraph_id":"para_353"},{"text":"the legislators evaluated the gravity of each offense and placed it in the tier most","paragraph_id":"para_354"},{"text":"appropriate to ensure public safety. The current scheme reduced the number of","paragraph_id":"para_355"},{"text":"individuals initially subject to lifetime registration while continuing to advance the","paragraph_id":"para_356"},{"text":"purposes of the statute—protecting children and responding to recidivism risks.","paragraph_id":"para_357"},{"text":"These are the precise types of policy decisions the Missouri legislature is empowered","paragraph_id":"para_358"},{"text":"to make. The failure to mandate individualized assessments for every offender is","paragraph_id":"para_359"},{"text":"insufficient to show the scheme is grossly disproportionate since individual","paragraph_id":"para_360"},{"text":"dangerousness or risk of recidivism would merely establish a fact that is not material","paragraph_id":"para_361"},{"text":"under the statute. See Miller, 405 F.3d at 709 (quoting Conn. Dep’t of Pub. Safety","paragraph_id":"para_362"},{"text":"v. Doe, 538 U.S. 1, 7 (2003)).","paragraph_id":"para_363"},{"text":"While the Does also claimed disproportionality due to the lack of a registration","paragraph_id":"para_364"},{"text":"scheme for other serious non-sexual offenses,7 they failed to meaningfully develop","paragraph_id":"para_365"},{"text":"this claim in their briefing. They did not present sufficient evidence to discredit the","paragraph_id":"para_366"},{"text":"Missouri General Assembly’s view that registration requirements designed to notify","paragraph_id":"para_367"},{"text":"law enforcement and to make publicly available accurate information about sex","paragraph_id":"para_368"},{"text":"offenders furthers public safety interests. They did not articulate a basis that would","paragraph_id":"para_369"},{"text":"warrant a federal court to intervene and act as a “superlegislature.” Fixing the","paragraph_id":"para_370"},{"text":"consequences for crimes “involves a substantive penological judgment that, as a","paragraph_id":"para_371"},{"text":"general matter, is properly within the province of legislatures, not courts.” Harmelin","paragraph_id":"para_372"},{"text":"v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957, 998 (1991) (Kennedy, J., concurring) (plurality opinion)","paragraph_id":"para_373"},{"text":"(cleaned up). The Does’ mere assertion that Mo. SORA is grossly disproportionate","paragraph_id":"para_374"},{"text":"because the Missouri General Assembly has not enacted a registration scheme for","paragraph_id":"para_375"},{"text":"non-sexual offenses is insufficient to demonstrate a constitutional claim.","paragraph_id":"para_376"},{"text":"The district court did not err in denying the Does’ Eighth Amendment claim,","paragraph_id":"para_377"},{"text":"as they have failed to show, in general or in a plaintiff’s particular circumstance, Mo.","paragraph_id":"para_378"},{"text":"SORA is barbaric or grossly disproportionate.","paragraph_id":"para_379"},{"text":"7The Does acknowledge in their complaint that Missouri lawmakers are","paragraph_id":"para_380"},{"text":"currently proposing a registration scheme for homicide offenses, although they","paragraph_id":"para_381"},{"text":"believe it is expected to be less onerous and burdensome than Mo. SORA.","paragraph_id":"para_382"},{"text":"-14-","paragraph_id":"para_383"},{"text":"3. Ex Post Facto Clause Claim","paragraph_id":"para_384"},{"text":"The viability of the Does’ Ex Post Facto clause claim is called into serious","paragraph_id":"para_385"},{"text":"question in light of the interaction of Smith, 538 U.S. at 105-106, and the Missouri","paragraph_id":"para_386"},{"text":"Supreme Court’s decision in Olson, 696 S.W. 3d at 330 (Mo. 2024). Both the","paragraph_id":"para_387"},{"text":"Missouri and United States Constitutions prohibit ex post facto laws. Whether the","paragraph_id":"para_388"},{"text":"question is analyzed under either, the result is the same. In Olson, the Missouri","paragraph_id":"para_389"},{"text":"Supreme Court analyzed Mo. SORA applying the non-exhaustive Mendoza-","paragraph_id":"para_390"},{"text":"Martinez, 372 U.S. at 168-69, factors that were described in Smith, 538 U.S. at 97,","paragraph_id":"para_391"},{"text":"as the most relevant. These include whether the regulatory scheme: (1) has been","paragraph_id":"para_392"},{"text":"regarded in our history and traditions as a form of punishment; (2) imposes an","paragraph_id":"para_393"},{"text":"affirmative disability or restraint; (3) promotes the traditional aims of punishment;","paragraph_id":"para_394"},{"text":"(4) has a rational connection to a nonpunitive purpose; or (5) is excessive with","paragraph_id":"para_395"},{"text":"respect to the purpose.","paragraph_id":"para_396"},{"text":"We have carefully reviewed the analysis performed by the Missouri Supreme","paragraph_id":"para_397"},{"text":"Court as it applies to Mo. SORA and find its analysis thorough and persuasive and","paragraph_id":"para_398"},{"text":"adopt its reasoning as our own in concluding that the Does have not demonstrated","paragraph_id":"para_399"},{"text":"that Mo. SORA violates the prohibition on ex post facto laws and that Mo. SORA is","paragraph_id":"para_400"},{"text":"reasonable in light of its non-punitive objectives.","paragraph_id":"para_401"},{"text":"4. Due Process and Equal Protection Claims","paragraph_id":"para_402"},{"text":"The Does’ complaint contains a total of seven separate counts alleging various","paragraph_id":"para_403"},{"text":"due process and/or equal protection claims. Many of their claims overlap. The Does","paragraph_id":"para_404"},{"text":"did not identify in their briefing the specific dismissed count(s) they are asking us to","paragraph_id":"para_405"},{"text":"review. Count IV alleges both a violation of substantive due process and equal","paragraph_id":"para_406"},{"text":"protection for Tier III offenders due to the lack of an individualized assessment.","paragraph_id":"para_407"},{"text":"Counts V and VI allege a due process claim and an equal protection claim because","paragraph_id":"para_408"},{"text":"Mo. SORA does not allow Tier III registrants to be removed from the registry.","paragraph_id":"para_409"},{"text":"Counts VII and VIII allege substantive due process claims based on interference","paragraph_id":"para_410"},{"text":"with familial relationships and employment. Count IX alleges a due process claim","paragraph_id":"para_411"},{"text":"-15-","paragraph_id":"para_412"},{"text":"directed at provisions pertaining to “exclusion zones,” which the district court","paragraph_id":"para_413"},{"text":"determined the Does lacked standing to challenge. We need not sift through each of","paragraph_id":"para_414"},{"text":"these claims in detail because the Does did not plausibly allege a cognizable","paragraph_id":"para_415"},{"text":"substantive due process or equal protection claim under any of their theories.","paragraph_id":"para_416"},{"text":"The Does’ chief complaint regarding the dismissal of their claims is a general","paragraph_id":"para_417"},{"text":"statement that the district court failed to accept their claims as true. We review de","paragraph_id":"para_418"},{"text":"novo the grant of a motion for judgment on the pleadings. Mills v. City of Grand","paragraph_id":"para_419"},{"text":"Forks, 614 F.3d 495, 497 (8th Cir. 2010). When considering if a claim has been","paragraph_id":"para_420"},{"text":"adequately pled, a court considers the pleadings themselves, material embraced by","paragraph_id":"para_421"},{"text":"the pleadings, exhibits attached to the pleadings, and matters of public record. Id. at","paragraph_id":"para_422"},{"text":"498.","paragraph_id":"para_423"},{"text":"A valid substantive due process claim requires a plaintiff to show a defendant","paragraph_id":"para_424"},{"text":"deprived him of a right established under the Fourteenth Amendment. Id. Contrary","paragraph_id":"para_425"},{"text":"to the Does’ argument, courts are not required to accept as a matter of course an","paragraph_id":"para_426"},{"text":"asserted right because it is pled. The Supreme Court has admonished lower courts","paragraph_id":"para_427"},{"text":"to consider carefully the description of the asserted right, as “[t]he doctrine of","paragraph_id":"para_428"},{"text":"judicial self-restraint requires us to exercise the utmost care whenever we are asked","paragraph_id":"para_429"},{"text":"to break any new ground in this field.” Miller, 405 F.3d at 710 (quoting Reno v.","paragraph_id":"para_430"},{"text":"Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 302 (1993)). The rights asserted by the Does include a lack of","paragraph_id":"para_431"},{"text":"a mechanism for individual review or removal from the registry for Tier III offenders","paragraph_id":"para_432"},{"text":"and interference with familial relationships and employment. As noted by the","paragraph_id":"para_433"},{"text":"district court, the Does failed to show how the classification scheme implicates a","paragraph_id":"para_434"},{"text":"fundamental right. As to their familial relationships claim, it is premised largely on","paragraph_id":"para_435"},{"text":"exclusions zones, which Mo. SORA does not address and are not at issue on appeal,","paragraph_id":"para_436"},{"text":"and other incidental impacts that do not directly intrude on familial relationships.","paragraph_id":"para_437"},{"text":"Similarly, the district court found that the Does, at most, showed incidental effects","paragraph_id":"para_438"},{"text":"on employment, noting Mo. SORA contains no prohibitions on employment. The","paragraph_id":"para_439"},{"text":"Does have not challenged on appeal any of the district court’s findings.","paragraph_id":"para_440"},{"text":"-16-","paragraph_id":"para_441"},{"text":"“The theory of substantive due process is properly reserved for truly egregious","paragraph_id":"para_442"},{"text":"and extraordinary cases.” Mills, 614 F.3d at 498 (cleaned up). This means: “A","paragraph_id":"para_443"},{"text":"plaintiff must establish the government action complained of is truly irrational, that","paragraph_id":"para_444"},{"text":"is something more than arbitrary, capricious, or in violation of state law. Truly","paragraph_id":"para_445"},{"text":"irrational conduct is conscience shocking, in a constitutional sense.” Id. (cleaned","paragraph_id":"para_446"},{"text":"up). The Does have not identified for us any substantive error in the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_447"},{"text":"analysis, let alone any specific claim that they pled which is sufficient to satisfy the","paragraph_id":"para_448"},{"text":"rigorous standards for a cognizable substantive due process violation. And, in our","paragraph_id":"para_449"},{"text":"review of the complaint and the district court’s decision, we are unable to find one.","paragraph_id":"para_450"},{"text":"The district court did not err when it dismissed the Does’ substantive due process","paragraph_id":"para_451"},{"text":"claims.","paragraph_id":"para_452"},{"text":"Regarding the equal protection component of the Does’ claims, the district","paragraph_id":"para_453"},{"text":"rejected their contention that individuals required to register pursuant to Mo. SORA","paragraph_id":"para_454"},{"text":"are identical in all material respects. The court identified “significant” differences","paragraph_id":"para_455"},{"text":"between Tier III registrants and registrants classified in Tiers I or II, including that","paragraph_id":"para_456"},{"text":"Tier III registrants (1) have been convicted of sex crimes involving the use of force;","paragraph_id":"para_457"},{"text":"(2) have committed sex crimes against children or vulnerable persons; (3) were","paragraph_id":"para_458"},{"text":"deemed repeat, persistent, or predatory offenders; or (4) were required to register","paragraph_id":"para_459"},{"text":"under another tier but have been convicted of failing to register. The Does have not","paragraph_id":"para_460"},{"text":"challenged these findings that undermine their equal protection claim.","paragraph_id":"para_461"},{"text":"Further, this Court has explained: “A classification that neither implicates a","paragraph_id":"para_462"},{"text":"fundamental right nor involves a suspect class of persons is constitutional if it is","paragraph_id":"para_463"},{"text":"supported by a rational basis.” Doe, I v. Peterson, 43 F.4th 838, 842 (8th Cir. 2022).","paragraph_id":"para_464"},{"text":"If the classification is rationally related to any conceivable, legitimate state purpose,","paragraph_id":"para_465"},{"text":"a court must uphold it. Id. The Missouri Supreme Court has found Mo. SORA is","paragraph_id":"para_466"},{"text":"rationally related to two legitimate state interests—the dissemination of information","paragraph_id":"para_467"},{"text":"for public safety and the safety of children. Olson, 696 S.W.3d at 328.","paragraph_id":"para_468"},{"text":"The district court found rational basis review applies because the restrictions","paragraph_id":"para_469"},{"text":"at issue do not involve a fundamental right or a protected class. On appeal, the Does","paragraph_id":"para_470"},{"text":"-17-","paragraph_id":"para_471"},{"text":"assert in a conclusory manner that, as they argued below, “a standard of review more","paragraph_id":"para_472"},{"text":"stringent than rational basis review was warranted, which is apparent from the face","paragraph_id":"para_473"},{"text":"of the Complaint itself.” They do not develop, explain, or articulate any specific","paragraph_id":"para_474"},{"text":"error in the district court’s review of the record or analysis but instead broadly assert","paragraph_id":"para_475"},{"text":"the district court should have credited their claims and accepted them as true. It is","paragraph_id":"para_476"},{"text":"not our role to conduct a searching review of the record, research applicable case","paragraph_id":"para_477"},{"text":"law, and craft arguments for a party. A party waives an issue by failing to “provide","paragraph_id":"para_478"},{"text":"a meaningful explanation of the argument and citation to relevant authority in their","paragraph_id":"para_479"},{"text":"opening brief.” Cox v. Mortg. Elec. Registration Sys., Inc., 685 F.3d 663, 674 (8th","paragraph_id":"para_480"},{"text":"Cir. 2012).","paragraph_id":"para_481"},{"text":"In terms of the substance of their claim, the only case the Does point us to is","paragraph_id":"para_482"},{"text":"the South Carolina Supreme Court’s decision in Powell v. Keel, 860 S.E.2d 344","paragraph_id":"para_483"},{"text":"(S.C. 2021), which involves a dissimilar sex offender registration scheme. When","paragraph_id":"para_484"},{"text":"Powell was decided, South Carolina’s SORA, unlike Missouri’s scheme, imposed","paragraph_id":"para_485"},{"text":"lifetime registration with biannual reporting for all sex offenders. S.C. Code Ann.","paragraph_id":"para_486"},{"text":"§ 23-3-460. The court upheld the constitutionality of the initial mandatory lifetime","paragraph_id":"para_487"},{"text":"registration requirement but found a lifetime registration requirement for all","paragraph_id":"para_488"},{"text":"registrants without any opportunity for judicial review to assess the risk of re-","paragraph_id":"para_489"},{"text":"offending violated due process. 860 S.E.2d at 348.","paragraph_id":"para_490"},{"text":"The concerns identified in Powell are ameliorated when a legislature tailors","paragraph_id":"para_491"},{"text":"the scheme so not all sex offenders are treated the same and required to register for","paragraph_id":"para_492"},{"text":"life. Does v. Whitmer, 751 F. Supp. 3d 761, 810 (E.D. Mich. 2024). Notably, after","paragraph_id":"para_493"},{"text":"Powell was decided, South Carolina’s legislature amended its SORA to create a","paragraph_id":"para_494"},{"text":"three-tiered scheme setting forth registration duration and removal procedures.","paragraph_id":"para_495"},{"text":"Following the amendment, the South Carolina Supreme Court expressly rejected a","paragraph_id":"para_496"},{"text":"registrant’s substantive due process challenge to the tiered scheme. McSwain, 914","paragraph_id":"para_497"},{"text":"S.E.2d at 130.","paragraph_id":"para_498"},{"text":"The Does’ complaint does not show the existence of a classification system","paragraph_id":"para_499"},{"text":"that is not rationally related to any conceivable, legitimate state purpose. Their","paragraph_id":"para_500"},{"text":"-18-","paragraph_id":"para_501"},{"text":"generalized assertions and conclusory arguments are insufficient to demonstrate the","paragraph_id":"para_502"},{"text":"district court erred when it dismissed their substantive due process and equal","paragraph_id":"para_503"},{"text":"protection claims.","paragraph_id":"para_504"},{"text":"5. Count XI – First Amendment Freedom of Speech & Association","paragraph_id":"para_505"},{"text":"Count XI of the Does’ complaint is titled First Amendment Freedom of","paragraph_id":"para_506"},{"text":"Speech & Association. They allege that Mo. SORA’s requirement that registrants","paragraph_id":"para_507"},{"text":"report in person within three days a new or changed online identifier burdens them","paragraph_id":"para_508"},{"text":"and violates their rights to freedom of speech and association. They also allege Mo.","paragraph_id":"para_509"},{"text":"SORA chills protected speech because registrants are reluctant to engage in online","paragraph_id":"para_510"},{"text":"speech if they must report identifiers to law enforcement before use, which (a)","paragraph_id":"para_511"},{"text":"requires them to take time off from work and be away from their families, and (b)","paragraph_id":"para_512"},{"text":"causes fear due to reprisal and harassment from the general public. The Does also","paragraph_id":"para_513"},{"text":"allege the requirement is not narrowly tailored because it targets all speech and","paragraph_id":"para_514"},{"text":"applies to all individuals subject to Mo. SORA. On appeal, they acknowledge the","paragraph_id":"para_515"},{"text":"term “overbroad,” or any variation of the term, does not appear in Count XI of their","paragraph_id":"para_516"},{"text":"complaint.","paragraph_id":"para_517"},{"text":"The district court, in its order addressing the MSHP defendants’ motion for","paragraph_id":"para_518"},{"text":"judgment on the pleadings, characterized its view of each of the Does’ claims. As","paragraph_id":"para_519"},{"text":"to Count XI, the court construed the complaint as alleging Mo. SORA “violates the","paragraph_id":"para_520"},{"text":"First Amendment because it burdens and chills Plaintiffs’ ability to engage in online","paragraph_id":"para_521"},{"text":"speech.” It also read Counts XII (anonymous speech) and XIII (prior restraint) to","paragraph_id":"para_522"},{"text":"“appear to be largely subsumed within Count XI.” Following its review of the","paragraph_id":"para_523"},{"text":"claims, the court dismissed some claims and allowed others to proceed. It declined","paragraph_id":"para_524"},{"text":"to dismiss Count XI at the pleading stage for two reasons: (1) the MSHP defendants","paragraph_id":"para_525"},{"text":"failed to address/analyze the portions of Count XI not reflected in Counts XII and","paragraph_id":"para_526"},{"text":"XIII, and (2) because the MSHP defendants were not entitled to judgment on the","paragraph_id":"para_527"},{"text":"pleadings on Counts XII and XIII, there was no basis for dismissing Count XI at the","paragraph_id":"para_528"},{"text":"pleading stage.","paragraph_id":"para_529"},{"text":"-19-","paragraph_id":"para_530"},{"text":"In the proceedings below, at no time did the Does contest or seek to correct a","paragraph_id":"para_531"},{"text":"mischaracterization of their claims. When the Does sought summary judgment as","paragraph_id":"para_532"},{"text":"to Counts XI, XII, and XIII (the First Amendment claims), they asserted Mo. SORA","paragraph_id":"para_533"},{"text":"chills protected online speech because it deprives them of their right to anonymous","paragraph_id":"para_534"},{"text":"speech and subjects registrants “to government and third-party surveillance” of all","paragraph_id":"para_535"},{"text":"online speech. The Does claimed Mo. SORA was broad, invasive, and onerous in","paragraph_id":"para_536"},{"text":"terms of the information required and the time allowed to provide it. The district","paragraph_id":"para_537"},{"text":"court found there was no allegation in the complaint that would provide notice that","paragraph_id":"para_538"},{"text":"the Does were alleging Mo. SORA is overbroad because it requires registrants to","paragraph_id":"para_539"},{"text":"report too much information or it impairs registrants’ access to the Internet or related","paragraph_id":"para_540"},{"text":"services. The Does did not dispute the district court’s findings below. They did not","paragraph_id":"para_541"},{"text":"move for reconsideration or seek leave to amend their complaint, which would have","paragraph_id":"para_542"},{"text":"given the district court the opportunity to review the arguments that the Does now","paragraph_id":"para_543"},{"text":"make on appeal. Instead, the Does proceeded to trial and challenge for the first time","paragraph_id":"para_544"},{"text":"on appeal the district court’s characterization of Count XI.","paragraph_id":"para_545"},{"text":"Further, the Does do not contest the overlapping nature of their claims and","paragraph_id":"para_546"},{"text":"have not explained why this claim is different from the others. In its final order, the","paragraph_id":"para_547"},{"text":"district court found that Count XI is a combination of other claims asserted elsewhere","paragraph_id":"para_548"},{"text":"in the complaint and is “a redundant claim.” Specifically, the district court found","paragraph_id":"para_549"},{"text":"that Count XI is dependent on the outcomes of Counts XII and XIII, as it essentially","paragraph_id":"para_550"},{"text":"reiterates Counts XII and XIII and adds allegations about the burden involved in","paragraph_id":"para_551"},{"text":"reporting new and changed online identifiers in person. Notably, the Does prevailed","paragraph_id":"para_552"},{"text":"on their claim regarding the burden of reporting changes to their online identifiers","paragraph_id":"para_553"},{"text":"prior to use but were unsuccessful in obtaining the relief they wanted. They wanted","paragraph_id":"para_554"},{"text":"the provision requiring them to report online identifiers stricken entirely from the","paragraph_id":"para_555"},{"text":"statute but agreed that removal of the time limitation listed on the registration form","paragraph_id":"para_556"},{"text":"was an appropriate remedy.","paragraph_id":"para_557"},{"text":"A review of the record belies the Does’ claim that the district court refused to","paragraph_id":"para_558"},{"text":"consider their claim. The district court considered the claim that they pled. We find","paragraph_id":"para_559"},{"text":"-20-","paragraph_id":"para_560"},{"text":"no error in the district court’s examination or dismissal of their First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_561"},{"text":"claim pertaining to the reporting of online identifiers.","paragraph_id":"para_562"},{"text":"6. Vagueness Challenge to “Online Identifiers”","paragraph_id":"para_563"},{"text":"Count X alleges Mo. SORA is overly broad and vague because the definition","paragraph_id":"para_564"},{"text":"of “online identifiers” includes the undefined clause “other identity information.”8","paragraph_id":"para_565"},{"text":"This claim proceeded to trial. After hearing and weighing the evidence, the district","paragraph_id":"para_566"},{"text":"court concluded that the statute is not unconstitutionally vague because the form","paragraph_id":"para_567"},{"text":"registrants must complete specifies the information that they are required to provide","paragraph_id":"para_568"},{"text":"to law enforcement. The Does do not challenge this finding but instead argue the","paragraph_id":"para_569"},{"text":"district court impermissibly considered MSHP’s form when resolving their","paragraph_id":"para_570"},{"text":"vagueness claim.","paragraph_id":"para_571"},{"text":"Individuals subject to Mo. SORA must register their “online identifiers” with","paragraph_id":"para_572"},{"text":"local law enforcement, Mo. Rev. Stat. § 589.407.1(1), and a failure to report them is","paragraph_id":"para_573"},{"text":"a crime. Id. at § 589.425.1. The Does argued below that the phrase “other identity","paragraph_id":"para_574"},{"text":"information” within the definition of “online identifiers” violates due process","paragraph_id":"para_575"},{"text":"because it does not put a person of ordinary intelligence on notice of what","paragraph_id":"para_576"},{"text":"information must be reported. While the district court stated that this phrase may","paragraph_id":"para_577"},{"text":"appear unclear in the abstract, the court reasoned that the Does’ constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_578"},{"text":"challenge lacked merit because the form registrants are required to complete is","paragraph_id":"para_579"},{"text":"sufficient to give notice of the information that they must report to law enforcement.","paragraph_id":"para_580"},{"text":"Because registrants do not have to guess as to what information is required to comply","paragraph_id":"para_581"},{"text":"with the law, the district court determined that the reporting requirement for online","paragraph_id":"para_582"},{"text":"8The Does also allege the information that must be registered with law","paragraph_id":"para_583"},{"text":"enforcement encompasses “an innumerable number of identifiers,” which can","paragraph_id":"para_584"},{"text":"change constantly requiring “constant monitoring and reporting” to stay compliant","paragraph_id":"para_585"},{"text":"with the law. This allegation does not relate to a vagueness challenge but appears to","paragraph_id":"para_586"},{"text":"be in the nature of an undue burden claim that was never meaningfully developed","paragraph_id":"para_587"},{"text":"below.","paragraph_id":"para_588"},{"text":"-21-","paragraph_id":"para_589"},{"text":"identifiers is not unconstitutionally vague. The Does contend the district court’s","paragraph_id":"para_590"},{"text":"approach was in error because only the legislature can correct a vague statute.","paragraph_id":"para_591"},{"text":"Mo. SORA requires individuals to report to law enforcement any “online","paragraph_id":"para_592"},{"text":"identifiers, as defined in section 43.651.” Mo. Rev. Stat. § 589.407.1(1). Online","paragraph_id":"para_593"},{"text":"identifiers are not to be accessible in the offender’s public profile and “shall only be","paragraph_id":"para_594"},{"text":"available to a member of the public by a search using the specific online identifier","paragraph_id":"para_595"},{"text":"to determine if a match exists with a registered offender.” Id. at § 589.402.3(10).","paragraph_id":"para_596"},{"text":"Section 43.651.1 lists four categories of information and provides examples of items","paragraph_id":"para_597"},{"text":"encompassed in each category. Category (4) defines “Online identifier” as","paragraph_id":"para_598"},{"text":"including: “electronic mail address and instant message screen name, user ID, cell","paragraph_id":"para_599"},{"text":"phone number or wireless communication device number or identifier, chat or other","paragraph_id":"para_600"},{"text":"internet communication name, or other identity information.” The only part of this","paragraph_id":"para_601"},{"text":"definition that the Does challenge is the final clause—“other identity information.”","paragraph_id":"para_602"},{"text":"The Does did not refute the MSHP defendant’s contention that the interpretive","paragraph_id":"para_603"},{"text":"principle of ejusdem generis provides a limiting construction that defeats their","paragraph_id":"para_604"},{"text":"vagueness argument. When examining the reach of a general clause included in a","paragraph_id":"para_605"},{"text":"provision listing other specific items or conduct, the Supreme Court has instructed","paragraph_id":"para_606"},{"text":"courts “to look for guidance from whatever examples come before it.” Fischer v.","paragraph_id":"para_607"},{"text":"United States, 603 U.S. 480, 487 (2024). This invokes consideration of two","paragraph_id":"para_608"},{"text":"principles:","paragraph_id":"para_609"},{"text":"First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word given more","paragraph_id":"para_610"},{"text":"precise content by the neighboring words with which it is associated","paragraph_id":"para_611"},{"text":"[which] avoids ascribing to one word a meaning so broad that it is","paragraph_id":"para_612"},{"text":"inconsistent with the company it keeps. And under the related canon","paragraph_id":"para_613"},{"text":"of ejusdem generis, a general or collective term at the end of a list of","paragraph_id":"para_614"},{"text":"specific items is typically controlled by and defined by reference to the","paragraph_id":"para_615"},{"text":"specific classes that precede it.","paragraph_id":"para_616"},{"text":"Id. (cleaned up).","paragraph_id":"para_617"},{"text":"-22-","paragraph_id":"para_618"},{"text":"Here, the clause “other identity information” is a general phrase that follows","paragraph_id":"para_619"},{"text":"several specific types of online identifiers, such as email addresses, screen names,","paragraph_id":"para_620"},{"text":"instant message screen names, cell phone numbers, chat names, etc. The specific","paragraph_id":"para_621"},{"text":"examples listed share the common theme of names created to send or receive","paragraph_id":"para_622"},{"text":"electronic messages, to share posts online, or to engage in other forms of electronic","paragraph_id":"para_623"},{"text":"communication with others. The Does’ challenge to the definition improperly carves","paragraph_id":"para_624"},{"text":"out one phrase and views it in isolation. The Does have not shown that the","paragraph_id":"para_625"},{"text":"legislature’s failure to define “other identity information” renders the statute","paragraph_id":"para_626"},{"text":"unconstitutionally vague.","paragraph_id":"para_627"},{"text":"The Does have also not shown that those required to register under Mo. SORA","paragraph_id":"para_628"},{"text":"are left to guess about the “innumerable number of identifiers” that they must report","paragraph_id":"para_629"},{"text":"to law enforcement. Mo. SORA imposes a statutory obligation on the MSHP to","paragraph_id":"para_630"},{"text":"create an offender registration form. See Mo. Rev. Stat. § 589.407.1. In relevant","paragraph_id":"para_631"},{"text":"part, the MSHP form requests that offenders provide the following identifiers:","paragraph_id":"para_632"},{"text":"-23-","paragraph_id":"para_633"},{"text":"When assessing whether a law is unduly vague in violation of due process,","paragraph_id":"para_634"},{"text":"the Supreme Court has directed courts to evaluate “several important values:”","paragraph_id":"para_635"},{"text":"First, because we assume that man is free to steer between lawful and","paragraph_id":"para_636"},{"text":"unlawful conduct, we insist that laws give the person of ordinary","paragraph_id":"para_637"},{"text":"intelligence a reasonable opportunity to know what is prohibited, so that","paragraph_id":"para_638"},{"text":"he may act accordingly. Vague laws may trap the innocent by not","paragraph_id":"para_639"},{"text":"providing fair warning. Second, if arbitrary and discriminatory","paragraph_id":"para_640"},{"text":"enforcement is to be prevented, laws must provide explicit standards","paragraph_id":"para_641"},{"text":"for those who apply them. A vague law impermissibly delegates basic","paragraph_id":"para_642"},{"text":"policy matters to policemen, judges, and juries for resolution on an ad","paragraph_id":"para_643"},{"text":"hoc and subjective basis, with the attendant dangers of arbitrary and","paragraph_id":"para_644"},{"text":"discriminatory applications.","paragraph_id":"para_645"},{"text":"Village of Hoffman Estates v. Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S. 489, 498","paragraph_id":"para_646"},{"text":"(1982) (quoting Grayned v. City of Rockford, 408 U.S. 104, 108-09 (1972)).","paragraph_id":"para_647"},{"text":"Although the void-for-vagueness doctrine focuses on both notice to citizens and","paragraph_id":"para_648"},{"text":"arbitrary enforcement, the more important aspect of the doctrine is on the second","paragraph_id":"para_649"},{"text":"element—“the requirement that a legislature establish minimal guidelines to govern","paragraph_id":"para_650"},{"text":"law enforcement.” Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 358 (1983) (quoting Smith","paragraph_id":"para_651"},{"text":"v. Goguen, 415 U.S. 566, 574 (1974)).","paragraph_id":"para_652"},{"text":"Here, none of these considerations tip in favor of the Does. Mo. SORA puts","paragraph_id":"para_653"},{"text":"individuals on notice that they must register (and update) personal information with","paragraph_id":"para_654"},{"text":"law enforcement. Mo. Stat. Rev. § 589.407. The information they are required to","paragraph_id":"para_655"},{"text":"provide must be provided in one of two formats—either on the form developed by","paragraph_id":"para_656"},{"text":"the MSHP or a format approved by the MSHP. Mo. Stat. Rev. § 589.407.1. The","paragraph_id":"para_657"},{"text":"Does have not argued that the information requested by the MSHP goes beyond the","paragraph_id":"para_658"},{"text":"provisions in Mo. SORA. Nor have they claimed the form developed by MSHP (or","paragraph_id":"para_659"},{"text":"other approved format) is confusing or not capable of being understood by a person","paragraph_id":"para_660"},{"text":"of ordinary intelligence.","paragraph_id":"para_661"},{"text":"The use of a standardized form ameliorates concerns pertaining to lack of","paragraph_id":"para_662"},{"text":"notice of the law and arbitrary or discriminatory enforcement. The Does have failed","paragraph_id":"para_663"},{"text":"-24-","paragraph_id":"para_664"},{"text":"to make a sufficient showing to demonstrate the law is so vague that it might “trap","paragraph_id":"para_665"},{"text":"the innocent” or that it impermissibly delegates basic policy matters to law","paragraph_id":"para_666"},{"text":"enforcement in a manner that poses a risk of arbitrary or discriminatory application.","paragraph_id":"para_667"},{"text":"At most, the Does have asserted a theoretical concern that is insufficient to conclude","paragraph_id":"para_668"},{"text":"the statute is unconstitutionally vague.","paragraph_id":"para_669"},{"text":"III. 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