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matter","paragraphs":["para_1","para_2","para_3","para_4","para_5","para_6","para_7","para_8","para_9","para_10","para_11","para_12","para_13","para_14","para_15","para_16","para_17","para_18","para_19","para_20","para_21","para_22","para_23","para_24","para_25","para_26","para_27","para_28","para_29","para_30","para_31","para_32","para_33","para_34","para_35","para_36","para_37","para_38","para_39","para_40","para_41","para_42","para_43","para_44","para_45","para_46","para_47","para_48","para_49","para_50","para_51","para_52","para_53","para_54","para_55","para_56","para_57","para_58","para_59","para_60","para_61","para_62","para_63","para_64","para_65","para_66","para_67","para_68","para_69","para_70","para_71","para_72","para_73","para_74","para_75","para_76","para_77","para_78","para_79","para_80","para_81","para_82","para_83","para_84","para_85","para_86","para_87","para_88","para_89","para_90","para_91","para_92","para_93","para_94","para_95","para_96","para_97","para_98","para_99","para_100","para_101","para_102","para_103","para_104","para_105","para_106","para_107","para_108","para_109","para_110","para_111","para_112","para_113","para_114","para_115","para_116","para_117","para_118","para_119","para_120","para_121","para_122","para_123","para_124","para_125","para_126","para_127","para_128","para_129","para_130","para_131","para_132","para_133","para_134","para_135","para_136","para_137","para_138","para_139","para_140","para_141","para_142","para_143","para_144","para_145","para_146","para_147","para_148","para_149","para_150","para_151","para_152","para_153","para_154","para_155","para_156","para_157","para_158","para_159","para_160","para_161","para_162","para_163","para_164","para_165","para_166","para_167","para_168","para_169","para_170","para_171","para_172","para_173","para_174","para_175","para_176","para_177","para_178","para_179","para_180","para_181","para_182","para_183","para_184","para_185","para_186","para_187","para_188","para_189","para_190","para_191","para_192","para_193","para_194","para_195","para_196","para_197","para_198","para_199","para_200","para_201","para_202","para_203","para_204","para_205","para_206","para_207","para_208","para_209","para_210","para_211","para_212","para_213","para_214","para_215","para_216","para_217","para_218","para_219","para_220","para_221","para_222","para_223","para_224","para_225","para_226","para_227","para_228","para_229","para_230","para_231","para_232","para_233","para_234","para_235","para_236","para_237","para_238","para_239","para_240","para_241","para_242","para_243","para_244","para_245","para_246","para_247","para_248","para_249","para_250","para_251","para_252","para_253","para_254","para_255","para_256","para_257","para_258","para_259","para_260","para_261","para_262","para_263","para_264","para_265","para_266","para_267","para_268","para_269","para_270","para_271","para_272","para_273","para_274","para_275","para_276","para_277","para_278","para_279","para_280","para_281","para_282","para_283","para_284","para_285","para_286","para_287","para_288","para_289","para_290","para_291","para_292","para_293","para_294","para_295","para_296","para_297","para_298","para_299","para_300","para_301","para_302","para_303","para_304","para_305","para_306","para_307","para_308","para_309","para_310","para_311","para_312","para_313","para_314","para_315","para_316","para_317","para_318","para_319","para_320","para_321","para_322","para_323","para_324","para_325","para_326","para_327","para_328","para_329","para_330","para_331","para_332","para_333","para_334","para_335","para_336","para_337"],"kind":"front_matter"}],"paragraphs":[{"text":"UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE THIRD CIRCUIT","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"No. 25-2860","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"KYLE BEATTY,","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"Appellant","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"v.","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"CLINTON GARDNER; CALVIN IRVIN","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"_____________________________","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"On Appeal from the U.S. District Court, M.D. Pa.","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"Judge Keli M. Neary, No. 4:23-cv-00364","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"Before: BIBAS, CHUNG, and AMBRO, Circuit Judges","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"Argued: June 24, 2026; Filed: Sept. 16, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"_____________________________","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"OPINION OF THE COURT","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"BIBAS, Circuit Judge. After arresting a suspect, officers","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"may search his person for weapons or evidence without a war-","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"rant or any further justification. But they may go only so far.","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"To search his home, car, or cellphone, they ordinarily need to","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"get a warrant backed by probable cause.","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"Today, we recognize another such limit on searches inci-","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"dent to arrest: strip searches. Outside of jails or prisons, offic-","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"ers need a search warrant (or exigent circumstances) supported","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"by probable cause to believe that a strip search will reveal","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"weapons, contraband, or evidence under the arrestee’s clothes.","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"Thus, the officers here violated the Fourth Amendment by","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"2","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"strip-searching an arrestee without a warrant or exigent cir-","paragraph_id":"para_26","court_paragraph":2},{"text":"cumstances. But because that limit was not clearly established","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"at the time, qualified immunity shields them from liability. So","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"we will affirm the District Court’s summary judgment for the","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"officers.","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"I. POLICE SEARCH BEATTY THREE TIMES","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"One afternoon, police officers Clinton Gardner and Calvin","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"Irvin were patrolling an area of Williamsport, Pennsylvania,","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"known for drug trafficking. They noticed Kyle Beatty and his","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"girlfriend in a car, followed them to a gas station, and waited","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"for them to head into the store. Gardner then approached the","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"car. He smelled marijuana through an open window and spotted","paragraph_id":"para_37"},{"text":"a burnt marijuana joint in the ashtray as well as marijuana","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"flakes on the floor. So he headed toward the store to investigate.","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"Beatty was first searched inside the store. As Gardner ap-","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"proached him, Beatty put his hands up and asked if the officer","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"wanted to search him. Gardner obliged and patted down his","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"waistband, pockets, legs, ankles, and groin but found nothing.","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"Beatty was searched a second time outside. After exiting","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"the store together, Beatty and Gardner went back to the car.","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"Gardner warned the couple that unless its owner, Beatty’s girl-","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"friend, consented to a car search, the officers would have it","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"towed and apply for a search warrant. Though she consented at","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"first, she started disobeying an officer’s commands. Beatty","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"then told his girlfriend to revoke her consent to search and the","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"officers handcuffed him, turning him face-down onto the hood","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"of the car. Irvin searched Beatty’s waist, pockets, groin, and","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"ankles and removed his wallet, but found no contraband. After","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"3","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"this search, the officers put him in the back of their squad car","paragraph_id":"para_55","court_paragraph":3},{"text":"and waited for a tow truck.","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"While waiting for the tow, the officers tried to get Beatty to","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"identify himself. Gardner threatened that, until Beatty gave his","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"full name, he would be arraigned as John Doe and could sit in jail.","paragraph_id":"para_59"},{"text":"They could “play that game.” Dist. Ct. Dkt. 28, Exh. A.2 at 04:49.","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"Beatty was searched a third time after the officers drove","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"him down to the police station. The officers brought him there","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"solely to strip-search him, but they found nothing.","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"Beatty then filed this federal civil-rights lawsuit against","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"both officers under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. He challenged the initial","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"stop, arrest, and all three searches as unreasonable under the","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"Fourth Amendment and retaliatory under the First Amend-","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"ment. He also brought state-law claims for assault, battery,","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"false arrest, and false imprisonment.","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"The District Court granted the officers summary judgment","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"on all federal claims and declined to exercise supplemental","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"jurisdiction over the state-law ones. It found the stop, arrest,","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"and first two searches reasonable and the strip search shielded","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"by qualified immunity. It likewise found the First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"retaliation claim barred by qualified immunity. We review de","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"novo. Tundo v. County of Passaic, 923 F.3d 283, 286–87 (3d","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"Cir. 2019).","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"II. THE STOP AND FIRST TWO SEARCHES","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"WERE REASONABLE","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"The Fourth Amendment bars unreasonable searches. Its","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"touchstone is reasonableness. United States v. Knights, 534","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"U.S. 112, 118 (2001). To discern reasonableness, courts have","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"4","paragraph_id":"para_83"},{"text":"developed rules that weigh the intrusion on a person’s privacy","paragraph_id":"para_84","court_paragraph":4},{"text":"against the government’s legitimate interest in a search. Id. at","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"118–19. As a rule of thumb, the Supreme Court has held,","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"searches must first be authorized by search warrants. Katz v.","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"United States, 389 U.S. 347, 357 (1967). But not always.","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"There are exceptions for warrantless searches throughout","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"the criminal process. When he first encounters a suspect, an","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"officer who has reasonable suspicion may frisk the suspect’s","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"outer clothes for weapons to protect his own safety. Terry v.","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 29–30 (1968). After a lawful arrest, an officer","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"may search the arrestee’s person for weapons and evidence.","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 762–63 (1969). Upon","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"booking an arrestee at a police station, an officer may search","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"his person to inventory and safeguard his possessions before","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"jailing him. Illinois v. Lafayette, 462 U.S. 640, 643–47 (1983).","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"And at the end of the process, guards may strip-search inmates","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"before putting them into the general population of a jail or","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"prison. Florence v. Bd. of Chosen Freeholders, 566 U.S. 318,","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"328 (2012). Plus, at any time during the process, valid consent","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"makes a warrantless search reasonable. Schneckloth v.","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 222 (1973). The same is true of","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"exigent circumstances. See Kentucky v. King, 563 U.S. 452,","paragraph_id":"para_105"},{"text":"460 (2011).","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"The first warrantless search, the pat-down inside the store,","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"was reasonable. Beatty consented to the pat-down, so it was","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"reasonable for Gardner to perform one. And Gardner was enti-","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"tled to stop Beatty in the first place because he had reasonable","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"suspicion. Indeed, Gardner had not only reasonable suspicion,","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"but probable cause to suspect Beatty of a crime: The officer","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"had smelled and seen traces of marijuana in the car, and","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"5","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"possessing even a small amount of that drug is a state-law","paragraph_id":"para_115","court_paragraph":5},{"text":"crime. 35 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 780-113(a)(31); United States v. Ra-","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"mos, 443 F.3d 304, 308 (3d Cir. 2006) (recognizing that the","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"smell of marijuana alone can show probable cause).","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"The second warrantless search, on the hood of Beatty’s car,","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"was reasonable as a search incident to arrest. Both parties agree","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"that Beatty was under arrest. And the arrest itself was lawful:","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"As discussed, the officers had probable cause to believe that he","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"possessed marijuana.","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"III. STRIP SEARCHES EXCEED THE SCOPE OF","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"SEARCHES INCIDENT TO ARREST","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"The difficulty lies with the third search. True, Beatty was","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"still under arrest. Even so, we hold that the search-incident-to-","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"arrest doctrine does not authorize strip searches; they go too","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"far. Because the officers had neither a warrant nor exigent cir-","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"cumstances to justify strip-searching Beatty, that search was","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"unreasonable.","paragraph_id":"para_131"},{"text":"The search-incident-to-arrest doctrine is a rule, not a case-","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"specific balancing test. United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S.","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"218, 235 (1973). After a lawful arrest, officers may automati-","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"cally search an arrestee’s person. No warrant, or even particu-","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"larized suspicion, is needed. Such a search is per se reasonable","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"because arrests are highly charged: Officers need to quickly","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"separate an arrestee from (1) weapons that he might pull out or","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"(2) evidence that he might destroy. Chimel, 395 U.S. at 762–","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"63. This rule has categorical exceptions for certain privacy","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"interests that categorically outweigh the government’s inter-","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"ests in conducting a search. Thus, certain searches categori-","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"cally fall outside the doctrine. See, e.g., id. (ruling out a home","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"6","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"search incident to arrest); Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 343","paragraph_id":"para_145","court_paragraph":6},{"text":"(2009) (same for a car); Riley v. California, 573 U.S. 373, 386","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"(2014) (same for cellphone data).","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"Riley illustrates how to gauge the limits on searches inci-","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"dent to arrest. There, officers searched two arrestees’ cell-","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"phones without warrants. The Supreme Court held that the","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"search-incident-to-arrest doctrine does not license warrantless","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"searches of cellphone data. 573 U.S. at 386. It reasoned that","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"neither of Chimel’s justifications ordinarily applies to cell-","paragraph_id":"para_153"},{"text":"phones. First, cellphones rarely enable escape or endanger","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"officer safety. Data are not weapons. Id. at 387. In the rare case","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"when the failure to search a cellphone could endanger an officer,","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"courts should instead rely on the case-specific exigent-circum-","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"stances exception to the warrant requirement. Id. at 388.","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"Second, there is rarely a serious need to prevent destruc-","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"tion of evidence: Once arrested, arrestees usually cannot delete","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"data, and police can prevent destruction by turning phones off","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"or putting them into Faraday bags. Id. at 388–91. Riley also","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"noted that destruction of cellphone evidence is uncommon. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"at 389. And when officers do have an immediate need to pre-","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"vent that destruction, they may rely on the exigent circum-","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"stances to justify a warrantless search. Id. at 391.","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"Those governmental interests, Riley explained, pale in com-","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"parison to users’ interests in keeping their cellphone data pri-","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":"vate. Id. at 393–98. Cellphones contain and reach enormous","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"amounts of personal data, much of it intimate. Id. Because of","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"“all they contain and all they may reveal,” the Court held that","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"the search-incident-to-arrest doctrine does not cover cellphone","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"data. Id. at 403. Though officers may seize a cellphone incident","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"7","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"to arrest, to search its data they must “get a warrant” backed by","paragraph_id":"para_175","court_paragraph":7},{"text":"probable cause. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"Applying Riley’s categorical approach, we hold that the","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"search-incident-to-arrest doctrine does not include strip","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"searches either. To start, Chimel’s twin rationales are not impli-","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"cated. As for destruction of evidence, the officers give us little","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"reason to believe that destruction of evidence concealed on an","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"arrestee’s body pending a search warrant is a widespread prob-","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"lem. Gardner did testify that “in [his] experience, [with] both","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"traffickers and users, one of the most common places that they","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"conceal narcotics is in their groin area.” JA 278. But Riley dis-","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"missed “only a couple of anecdotal examples” as not enough","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"to justify evidence preservation across the board. 573 U.S. at","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"389. Particular crimes, such as smuggling drugs by airplane","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"passengers, may often involve concealing drugs on the body.","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"Even so, we see no solid evidence to justify strip searching all","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"drug users and traffickers as a matter of course. And there are","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"ways short of strip searches to keep suspects from disposing of","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"secreted evidence on or in their persons. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"As for Chimel’s officer-safety rationale, police are free to","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"pat arrestees down for weapons. If a frisk turns up a potentially","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"dangerous bulge, that may amount to exigent circumstances","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"justifying a further search for weapons. The same is true if","paragraph_id":"para_197"},{"text":"police have some other particularized reason to believe that","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"this arrestee is concealing a dangerous weapon. But no such","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"danger was present here: The officers had already searched","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"Beatty twice, finding nothing dangerous. No one had told them","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"that he was concealing a gun or knife in his crotch. And they","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"admit they were searching him solely for evidence, not weap-","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"ons. Given the various alternative sources of authority that","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"8","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"officers could rely on to justify a further search, there is little","paragraph_id":"para_206","court_paragraph":8},{"text":"need to authorize strip searches automatically upon arrest.","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"On the other side of the balance, the privacy interests are","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"weighty. Strip searches expose to strangers the most intimate","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"parts of the body, which are kept covered for modesty and","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"called “private parts.” These searches are an “extreme intrusion","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"on privacy.” Parkell v. Danberg, 833 F.3d 313, 327 (3d Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"2016) (internal quotation marks omitted). They are “embar-","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"rassing” and “humiliating,” sometimes even “frightening.”","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"Safford Unified Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Redding, 557 U.S. 364, 374–","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"75 (2009). That humiliation is a necessary evil to keep weap-","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"ons, drugs, other contraband, and lice out of the general popu-","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"lation of jails and prisons. Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 558","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"(1979); Florence, 566 U.S. at 330–33 (majority), 340–41","paragraph_id":"para_219"},{"text":"(Alito, J., concurring). But because Beatty was not going to be","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"jailed or imprisoned, the institutional-search exception does","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"not apply here.","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"Given the balance of competing interests, we hold that the","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"search-incident-to-arrest doctrine does not extend to strip","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"searches. Sometimes, an arrestee may consent to a strip search.","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"Or exigent circumstances may justify it: For instance, an officer","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"might detect a weapon during a pat-down or know that this","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"arrestee conceals weapons in his crotch. Otherwise, an officer","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"must first get a search warrant based on particularized facts","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"showing probable cause to search underneath the arrestee’s","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"clothing. See Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. 85, 91 (1979).","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"The officers here had no warrant, exigent circumstances, or","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"consent. They had already searched Beatty twice, once inside","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"the store and again on the hood of the car, without finding","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"9","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"weapons or contraband. They had no particularized reason to","paragraph_id":"para_236","court_paragraph":9},{"text":"believe that a warrantless third search was needed to preserve","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"evidence. Their generalized speculation about drug users and","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"traffickers is not specific enough to show that Beatty might","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"have concealed evidence, let alone that he might destroy it","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"immediately.","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"True, other circuits have let officers strip-search arrestees","paragraph_id":"para_242"},{"text":"based only on reasonable suspicion. United States v. Perez, 977","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"F.3d 163, 169–70 (1st Cir. 2020); Campbell v. Miller, 499 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"711, 717 (7th Cir. 2007); Richmond v. City of Brooklyn Ctr.,","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"490 F.3d 1002, 1006 (8th Cir. 2007); Justice v. Peachtree City,","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"961 F.2d 188, 193 (11th Cir. 1992). But we are unpersuaded.","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"This approach rests on older cases that predate the Supreme","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"Court’s reweighing of the privacy interests in Safford and Flor-","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"ence, not to mention Riley. And these cases failed to explain","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"why they adopted a standard below the ordinary requirement","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"of probable cause. Instead, we join the Fifth, Ninth, and Tenth","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"Circuits in requiring a warrant supported by probable cause.","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"Williams v. Kaufman Cnty., 352 F.3d 994, 1005 (5th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"2003); Fuller v. M.G. Jewelry, 950 F.2d 1437, 1446–50 (9th","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"Cir. 1991); Hinkle v. Beckham Cnty. Bd. of Cnty. Comm’rs,","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"962 F.3d 1204, 1239 (10th Cir. 2020).","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"IV. BUT THE OFFICERS HAVE QUALIFIED IMMUNITY","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"Though the strip search violated the Fourth Amendment,","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"that is not enough to make the officers liable. They raise the","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"defense of qualified immunity. To apply that defense, we first","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"define the right specifically, then ask if a reasonable officer","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"would have been on notice that his conduct would violate that","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"right. Otero v. Kane, 161 F.4th 189, 194 (3d Cir. 2025). The","paragraph_id":"para_264"},{"text":"10","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"right must be clearly established by “Supreme Court precedent,","paragraph_id":"para_266","court_paragraph":10},{"text":"our own precedent, or a consensus of authority among the","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"courts of appeals plac[ing] that right beyond debate.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"(cleaned up). When a challenged police action presents an unu-","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"sual, rarely discussed legal question, we have held that the action","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"violated the Constitution yet was shielded by qualified immun-","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"ity. Doe v. Groody, 361 F.3d 232, 243 (3d Cir. 2004) (citing","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"two cases that did so).","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"We start by defining the right carefully. An arrestee (who","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"is not being admitted to the general population of a jail or","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"prison) has a Fourth Amendment right to be free of a strip","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"search. That right can be overcome by consent to the search,","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"exigent circumstances, or a warrant backed by probable cause","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"to believe that searching under the clothing will uncover a","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"weapon, contraband, or evidence of a crime. The District Court","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"properly held that this right was not clearly established at the","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"time of the search. “[N]either the Supreme Court nor the Third","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"Circuit … ha[d] directly addressed—outside the institutional","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"setting—the constitutionality of strip searches incident to ar-","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"rest.” United States v. Parker, 458 F. Supp. 3d 260, 265 (M.D.","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"Pa. 2020), aff’d, 2023 WL 4117474 (3d Cir. June 22, 2023).","paragraph_id":"para_286"},{"text":"Thus, the officers enjoy qualified immunity from Beatty’s","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"Fourth Amendment strip-search claim.","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"Beatty’s First Amendment retaliation claim fails too. His","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"stop, arrest, and first two searches were lawful, supported by","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"probable cause. Nieves v. Bartlett, 587 U.S. 391, 404 (2019)","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"(holding that lack of probable cause is generally required to","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"make out a retaliatory-arrest claim). And even though there","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"was no probable cause to strip-search Beatty, any related retal-","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"iation claim based on the third search is shielded by qualified","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"11","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"immunity. The right claimed here is the right to be free of a","paragraph_id":"para_297","court_paragraph":11},{"text":"search made in retaliation for refusing to cooperate with the","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"police during an investigative seizure. Beatty cites no cases in","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"which a plaintiff has made out a successful First Amendment","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"retaliation claim based on his unwillingness to cooperate with a","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"police search. Several of our sister circuits have previously","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"granted qualified immunity from similar claims, reasoning that","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"there is no clearly established “First Amendment right to re-","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"main silent when questioned by the police.” Moore v. Gar-","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"nand, 83 F.4th 743, 750 (9th Cir. 2023); accord Alexander v.","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"City of Round Rock, 854 F.3d 298, 308 (5th Cir. 2017); Koch","paragraph_id":"para_307"},{"text":"v. Del City, 660 F.3d 1228, 1244 (10th Cir. 2011). So a reason-","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"able officer would not have known that a search conducted in re-","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"sponse to Beatty’s unwillingness could be a basis for a First","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"Amendment claim.","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"* * * * *","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"The officers began their encounter with Beatty lawfully.","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"They had probable cause to arrest him, and it was reasonable","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"to search him in the course of that arrest. But they went too far","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"by strip-searching him. We hold that the search-incident-to-","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"arrest doctrine does not license strip searches as a matter of","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"course. Unless the arrestee consents or there are exigent cir-","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"cumstances, police must first get a search warrant backed by","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"probable cause to believe that they will find weapons, contra-","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"band, or evidence under his clothes. Because the officers had","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"no such warrant or probable cause, they violated Beatty’s","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"Fourth Amendment right. But that right was not clearly estab-","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"lished, so qualified immunity shields the officers. The same is","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"true for his First Amendment retaliation claim. We will thus","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"AFFIRM the summary judgment for the officers.","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"12","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"Counsel for Appellant","paragraph_id":"para_328","court_paragraph":12},{"text":"Joshua J. 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