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PUBLICATION","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"In the","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"United States Court of Appeals","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"For the Eleventh Circuit","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"____________________","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"No. 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"____________________","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"DR. LANA FOSTER,","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"Plaintiff-Appellee,","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"versus","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"ECHOLS COUNTY SCHOOL DISTRICT,","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"ECHOLS COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION,","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"Defendants,","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"SHANNON KING, et al.,","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"individually and in their official capacities,","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"Defendants-Appellants.","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"____________________","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"Appeal from the United States District Court","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"for the Middle District of Georgia","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"D.C. Docket No. 7:23-cv-00089-WLS","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"____________________","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"Before ROSENBAUM, GRANT, and BRASHER, Circuit Judges.","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"GRANT, Circuit Judge:","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 1 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"2 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"Dr. Lana Foster was one of the first black children to","paragraph_id":"para_26"},{"text":"integrate Echols County Schools. Later, she was one of the first","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"black faculty members in the district—until she was fired in 2018.","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"The school board cited ethical violations, but during her tenure","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"alone, the district had settled at least three complaints relating to","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"racially discriminatory employment practices—so Foster had her","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"doubts. And when she filed a charge with the EEOC for","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"employment discrimination and retaliation, the district settled","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"those claims, too.","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"The resulting settlement agreement required the school","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"district to promptly take certain actions, but Foster says they did","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"nothing. She turned to federal court, suing the district, the school","paragraph_id":"para_37"},{"text":"board, the school board members, and the former and current","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"school superintendents. This time, the defendants did not settle.","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"Instead, they all moved to dismiss. In particular, the school officials","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"invoked qualified immunity, arguing that their alleged conduct—","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"refusing to implement Foster’s settlement agreement based on","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"their racial animus toward her—did not violate clearly established","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"law.","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"This last question is the only one on appeal, and we agree","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"with the district court that qualified immunity does not apply; the","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"school officials were on notice that interfering with a contract","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"because of race was illegal. Still, the officials object that qualified","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"immunity must apply because whether they can be held personally","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"liable under § 1981 is an open question. And without certainty","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 2 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 3","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"about their personal potential for liability, they say, qualified","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"immunity applies even in the face of plainly illegal conduct.","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"No. An official’s understanding about whether he may be","paragraph_id":"para_55"},{"text":"held liable is irrelevant. Qualified immunity asks whether officials","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"were on notice that their alleged conduct was unlawful—not","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"whether they could be sued for it. We affirm.","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"I.","paragraph_id":"para_59"},{"text":"Foster has lived in Echols County her whole life.1 First","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"making history integrating the local schools, she later became one","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"of the district’s first black educators. Several members of her family","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"worked for the district, too. But according to Foster, it was not a","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"smooth transition, and school administrators directed “racial","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"hatred” at her family for decades. And during the 2008–2009 school","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"year, the district moved her from her usual teaching role to what","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"she calls a “less desirable Alternative School position” and stripped","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"her of club leadership duties.","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"She sued the district, claiming that those moves were","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"racially motivated. The parties settled in 2011, and the settlement","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"required the district to pay Foster $40,000 and reinstate her club","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"leadership role. But after the 2011 settlement, things got worse","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"rather than better—at least according to Foster, who says the","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"district told her that parents in the community objected to black","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"1 Because this case comes to us on a motion to dismiss, we accept the","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"complaint’s factual allegations as true and construe them in Foster’s favor.","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"Otto Candies, LLC v. Citigroup Inc., 137 F.4th 1158, 1177 (11th Cir. 2025).","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 3 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"4 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"teachers and that white colleagues were told on pain of firing not","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"to associate with her.","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"Less than a year after her suit, the U.S. Department of","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"Education’s Office of Civil Rights investigated Foster’s complaints","paragraph_id":"para_83"},{"text":"about the school district’s noncompliance with Title VI’s","paragraph_id":"para_84"},{"text":"prohibitions against racial discrimination. The district quickly","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"signed a “Resolution Agreement,” which ended the investigation.","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"The district agreed (among other things) to “develop a recruitment","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"plan for increasing the number of qualified black applicants” and","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"conduct Title VI training for “the Superintendent, all principals,","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"and any other individuals who have any role in recruiting.”","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"According to Foster, this agreement improved nothing, and","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"the problems came to a head in 2018 when the district fired her.","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"She contested her termination, and the Georgia Attorney General","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"and Professional Standards Commission took her side, finding “no","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"probable cause” to support her termination on the ethics grounds","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"the district cited.","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"Foster returned to the courts. She sued the district for Open","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"Records Act violations, and that suit revealed that two school","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"board members who had played a part in deciding to fire her had","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"used racial slurs in text messages. A charge with the EEOC for","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"racial discrimination and retaliation soon followed. Rather than","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"defend against Foster’s new charge, the district again chose to","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"settle. The parties’ agreement, signed in 2020, required the district","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"to pay Foster more than $130,000 and reclassify her firing as a","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"“voluntary resignation.” The district also agreed to “immediately”","paragraph_id":"para_105"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 4 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 5","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"amend its recruitment and hiring practices and make them publicly","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"available. And like the earlier Resolution Agreement, the new","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"settlement agreement required the district to develop a plan to","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"recruit more black applicants to apply for vacant positions.","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"About a year later, in 2021, Foster checked in on the district’s","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"progress. She filed another open records request, this time seeking","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"documents related to compliance with the settlement agreement,","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"including a copy of the district’s updated hiring plan. The district’s","paragraph_id":"para_115"},{"text":"response was a link to a policy that had last been updated in 2013—","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"years before it committed to developing a new plan. By early 2022","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"the district revised its policy, but according to Foster, the new","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"approach too fell short of the settlement agreement’s demands.","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"Foster sued both the district and the school board, plus","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"seven school officials—the former district superintendent, the","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"current superintendent, and all five school board members. The","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"defendants moved to dismiss the complaint for failure to state a","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"claim. In response, Foster filed an amended complaint with six","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"claims:","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"(1) denial of her right to make and enforce contracts based","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"on her race under 42 U.S.C. §§ 1981 and 1983, against all","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"defendants;","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"(2) breach of contract under Title VII, against the school","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"district and board;","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"(3) breach of contract under Georgia law, against the school","paragraph_id":"para_131"},{"text":"district and board;","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 5 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"6 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"(4) breach of the implied covenant of good faith and fair","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"dealing under Title VII and Georgia law, against all","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"defendants;","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"(5) breach of third-party beneficiary agreement under Title","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"VII and Georgia law, against the school district and","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"board; and","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"(6) retaliation for engaging in protected activities under 42","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"U.S.C. §§ 1981 and 1983, against all defendants.","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"All in all, she alleged that the school officials were “aware of the","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"District’s obligations” under the settlement agreement “and chose","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"to ignore” them because of “race-based animus” toward her. The","paragraph_id":"para_145"},{"text":"defendants again moved to dismiss for failure to state a claim. And","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"the school officials defended against Foster’s § 1981 claims on","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"qualified immunity grounds.","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"The district court dismissed Foster’s complaint in part. That","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"included rejecting, against all defendants, Foster’s retaliation claim,","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"plus her state-law breach-of-contract claim and her third-party","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"beneficiary claim against the district and board. The court also","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"dismissed her claim for breach of the implied covenant of good","paragraph_id":"para_153"},{"text":"faith and fair dealing against the school officials. The rest of the","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"lawsuit remains. For the school district and the board, Foster’s","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"claims for the denial of her rights under § 1981, breach of contract","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"under Title VII, and breach of the implied covenant are still in","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"play.2 And for the school officials, the district court allowed","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"2 The district court allowed Foster’s Title VII breach-of-contract claim to","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"proceed against the school district and board to the extent that it relies on a","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"breach of Section III of the Settlement Agreement. And it allowed her breach-","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 6 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 7","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"Foster’s § 1981 denial-of-rights claim to move forward and denied","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"qualified immunity.3 This interlocutory appeal followed on the","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"qualified immunity question.","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"II.","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"We review a district court’s denial of qualified immunity on","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":"a motion to dismiss de novo. Bailey v. Wheeler, 843 F.3d 473, 480","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"(11th Cir. 2016).","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"III.","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"This appeal asks only one thing: whether Foster’s complaint","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"states a violation of clearly established law sufficient to overcome","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"the school officials’ qualified immunity defense. It does.","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"A.","paragraph_id":"para_175"},{"text":"We begin with the basics on qualified immunity. “When","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"government officials abuse their offices, actions for damages may","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"offer the only realistic avenue for vindication of constitutional","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"guarantees.” Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 638 (1987)","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"(alteration adopted and quotation omitted). But such actions come","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"with costs. Id. To name one, subjecting government officials to","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"of-the-implied-covenant claim to proceed against the school district and board","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"to the extent that it relies on federal law.","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"3 Foster brought her denial-of-rights claim under both § 1981 and § 1983","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"because § 1981 confers a right, but it does not itself provide a cause of action","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"against state actors. See Butts v. County of Volusia, 222 F.3d 891, 894 (11th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"2000). So Foster, like all other § 1981 plaintiffs with claims against state actors,","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"must rely on § 1983 to pursue her denial-of-rights claim against the school","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"officials. See Jett v. Dallas Indep. Sch. Dist., 491 U.S. 701, 735 (1989).","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 7 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"8 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"“personal monetary liability and harassing litigation” risks “unduly","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"inhibit[ing] officials in the discharge of their duties.” Id.","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"The Supreme Court balanced these objectives when it","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"recognized qualified immunity as an affirmative defense. Harlow v.","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 814 (1982). To lessen the perceived","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"burdens on officials performing “discretionary functions,” qualified","paragraph_id":"para_197"},{"text":"immunity shields them from civil liability—but only when their","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"conduct “does not violate clearly established statutory or","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"known.” Id. at 816; Mullenix v. Luna, 577 U.S. 7, 11 (2015)","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"(quotation omitted). Put differently, qualified immunity protects","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"“all but the plainly incompetent or those who knowingly violate","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"the law.” Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 341 (1986). And it shields","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"officials not only from personal liability for monetary damages, but","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"also from defending a costly action through trial. See Pearson v.","paragraph_id":"para_206"},{"text":"Callahan, 555 U.S. 223, 231 (2009). So courts must decide “at the","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"earliest possible stage in litigation” whether qualified immunity","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"applies. Id. at 232 (quotation omitted).","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"That analysis involves two questions, and those two","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"questions can be considered in either order: whether the officials","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"“violated a federal statutory or constitutional right,” and whether","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"“the unlawfulness of their conduct was clearly established at the","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"time” they acted. District of Columbia v. Wesby, 583 U.S. 48, 62–63","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"(2018) (quotation omitted). Unless the answer for both is yes, an","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"official is entitled to qualified immunity. See id.; see also Ashcroft v.","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"al-Kidd, 563 U.S. 731, 735 (2011).","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 8 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 9","paragraph_id":"para_219"},{"text":"The first question, whether the defendant violated the law,","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"may be easier or harder in a given case. But not because of qualified","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"immunity—some applications of law to fact are just difficult. But","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"the second question, whether the law is clearly established,","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"presents a set of doctrinal challenges unique to qualified immunity.","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"For a right to be clearly established, it must be “sufficiently clear","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"that every reasonable official would understand that what he is","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"doing” violates it. Wesby, 583 U.S. at 63 (quotation omitted). This","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"inquiry is an objective one, and depends on whether an official had","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"“fair warning” that his conduct was unlawful. Coffin v. Brandau, 642","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"F.3d 999, 1013 (11th Cir. 2011) (en banc) (quotation omitted); see","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"Harlow, 457 U.S. at 818. Qualified immunity, in short, protects","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"government officials unless “existing law” puts the unlawfulness of","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"their conduct “beyond debate.” Wesby, 583 U.S. at 63 (quotation","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"omitted).","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"What’s more, the “nature of particular conduct” is the key","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"inquiry. Mullenix, 577 U.S. at 12 (alteration adopted and quotation","paragraph_id":"para_236"},{"text":"omitted). After all, defining the law too generally would make it","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"difficult for an official to reasonably anticipate its application to","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"particular facts. See id.; Anderson, 483 U.S. at 639. So courts are","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"charged to define clearly established law with enough “specificity”","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"that a reasonable officer will understand that “his conduct was","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"unlawful in the situation he confronted.” Wesby, 583 U.S. at 63","paragraph_id":"para_242"},{"text":"(quotations omitted). It’s true that in some rare-but-obvious cases,","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"the unlawfulness of the conduct can be clear even without existing","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"precedent that is directly on point. Id. at 64; see also Powell v. Snook,","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"25 F.4th 912, 920 (11th Cir. 2022). But either way, the baseline of","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 9 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"10 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"the qualified immunity analysis is the nature of the official’s alleged","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"conduct.","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"B.","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"With that, we turn to the school officials’ qualified","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"immunity defense.4 They contend that their alleged conduct—","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"impairing Foster’s contractual relationship with the district","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"because of her race—did not violate clearly established law. We","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"disagree.","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"Section 1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, now codified as 42","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"U.S.C. § 1981, promises that every person “shall have the same","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"right” to “make and enforce contracts . . . as is enjoyed by white","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"citizens.” The law defines “make and enforce contracts” as","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"including “the making, performance, modification, and","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits,","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship.”","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"42 U.S.C. § 1981(b). This provision protects individuals against","paragraph_id":"para_264"},{"text":"“impairment” by both private parties and officials acting “under","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"color of State law.” Id. § 1981(c).","paragraph_id":"para_266"},{"text":"4 The school officials do not appear to challenge the statutory-violation prong","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"on appeal. That is, they do not argue that Foster failed to plausibly allege that","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"the school officials denied her rights under § 1981 (setting aside whether those","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"rights are clearly established). Following the school officials’ lead, we assume","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"that Foster plausibly alleged a statutory violation against each school official.","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"Accordingly, we address only step two of the qualified immunity analysis:","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"whether the alleged conduct violated clearly established law.","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 10 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 11","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"Foster alleges that the school officials denied her right to","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"“make and enforce contracts” under § 1981 by deliberately failing","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"to hold up their end of the settlement agreement because of their","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"racial animosity toward her. The parties agree that Foster’s trial","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"court briefing did not identify a case with “materially similar facts”","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"to this one, as is ordinarily required. Powell, 25 F.4th at 920. Indeed,","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"neither side adequately developed its argument before the district","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"court. But we, like the district court, have little difficulty in","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"reaching the narrow legal conclusion that as a matter of “obvious","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"clarity,” all reasonable government officials would know they","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"cannot refuse to follow a contract because of the contracting","paragraph_id":"para_286"},{"text":"party’s race. Id. at 921.","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"First, take § 1981’s text. That law prohibits officials from","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"“impair[ing]” a contracting party’s equal right to enjoy the","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"“benefits” of their contractual relationship, and Foster alleges that","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"the school officials did exactly that. 42 U.S.C. § 1981. She identifies","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"an impaired contractual relationship: her settlement agreement","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"with the district. And she alleges that the officials’ conduct denied","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"her the benefit of her bargain: a revised hiring policy that reflects","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"the district’s efforts to remedy its poor track record with black","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"employees. The officials knew that the district had settled with","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"Foster. And they knew that the agreement required them to take","paragraph_id":"para_297"},{"text":"certain actions. Yet they chose not to take them. Worse still, they","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"made that choice because of Foster’s race, at least according to the","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 11 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"12 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"pleadings. Foster thus alleges that the school officials violated her","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"clearly established § 1981 rights.5","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"Our precedent says the same thing. In Faraca v. Clements, for","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"example, Dr. Andrew Faraca (a white male) applied for a position","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"with what was then called the Georgia Retardation Center. 506","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"F.2d 956, 957–58 (5th Cir. 1975).6 He was well-qualified, but the","paragraph_id":"para_307"},{"text":"Center’s director told his employees to reject Faraca because his","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"wife was black. Id. at 958. The couple sued both the Center and","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"its director under § 1981. Id. at 957. After a bench trial, the district","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"court held the director personally liable for interfering with","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"Faraca’s prospective contract rights, and we affirmed. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"“Technically,” the opinion acknowledged, the State “was the","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"prospective employer and only it would be in a position to refuse","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"to enter into a contract.” Id. at 959. Even so, we permitted a suit","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"5 It’s true that “[e]ach defendant is entitled to an independent qualified-","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"immunity analysis.” Myrick v. Fulton County, 69 F.4th 1277, 1301 (11th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"2023) (quotation omitted). But we again emphasize that the school officials","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"did not adequately develop an argument on appeal that Foster failed to","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"plausibly allege that they (individually) violated her rights under § 1981. On","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"remand, Foster must carry her burden in proving that each school official","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"engaged in conduct that was a but-for cause of the impairment of her § 1981","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"rights. See Comcast Corp. v. Nat’l Ass’n of Afr. Am.-Owned Media, 589 U.S. 327,","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"341 (2020). Here, we narrowly hold that—if proven—that conduct would","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"violate clearly established federal law.","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"6 This Court has adopted as binding precedent all decisions of the Fifth Circuit","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"issued before October 1, 1981. Bonner v. City of Prichard, 661 F.2d 1206, 1209","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"(11th Cir. 1981) (en banc).","paragraph_id":"para_328"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 12 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_329"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 13","paragraph_id":"para_330"},{"text":"for personal liability based on the director’s third-party","paragraph_id":"para_331"},{"text":"“interference with those rights guaranteed under” § 1981. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_332"},{"text":"So too here. As in Faraca, Foster alleges “interference” with","paragraph_id":"para_333"},{"text":"her contractual rights because of racial animus. Id.; see 42 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_334"},{"text":"§ 1981. Reasonable officials—reading § 1981’s text, considering","paragraph_id":"para_335"},{"text":"Faraca, or both—would understand that they could not “impair[]”","paragraph_id":"para_336"},{"text":"Foster’s equal right to enjoy the settlement agreement’s benefits","paragraph_id":"para_337"},{"text":"because of her race. 42 U.S.C. § 1981(c). We thus reject the school","paragraph_id":"para_338"},{"text":"officials’ contention that their alleged conduct did not violate","paragraph_id":"para_339"},{"text":"clearly established law.","paragraph_id":"para_340"},{"text":"C.","paragraph_id":"para_341"},{"text":"The officials protest this result, but their counterarguments","paragraph_id":"para_342"},{"text":"fall short—mainly because they misunderstand qualified","paragraph_id":"para_343"},{"text":"immunity.","paragraph_id":"para_344"},{"text":"The officials first resist the conclusion that the law clearly","paragraph_id":"para_345"},{"text":"prohibits nonparties to a contract from interfering with the","paragraph_id":"para_346"},{"text":"plaintiff’s contractual rights under § 1981.7 Despite both the","paragraph_id":"para_347"},{"text":"statute’s text and this Court’s precedent, they say it is an open","paragraph_id":"para_348"},{"text":"question. True enough, in Domino’s Pizza, Inc. v. McDonald, the","paragraph_id":"para_349"},{"text":"Supreme Court explained that the plaintiff must have rights under","paragraph_id":"para_350"},{"text":"7 In dismissing Foster’s breach-of-the-implied-covenant claim against the","paragraph_id":"para_351"},{"text":"school officials, the district court concluded that they are nonparties to the","paragraph_id":"para_352"},{"text":"settlement agreement. Neither party contests that conclusion for purposes of","paragraph_id":"para_353"},{"text":"this qualified immunity appeal—even though the former superintendent","paragraph_id":"para_354"},{"text":"signed the agreement on the district’s behalf. We thus assume that all school","paragraph_id":"para_355"},{"text":"officials (regardless of their titles) are nonparties to the settlement agreement.","paragraph_id":"para_356"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 13 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_357"},{"text":"14 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_358"},{"text":"an existing (or proposed) contract to bring a § 1981 claim. 546 U.S.","paragraph_id":"para_359"},{"text":"470, 479–80 (2006). But that is irrelevant here—Foster has rights","paragraph_id":"para_360"},{"text":"under the settlement agreement.","paragraph_id":"para_361"},{"text":"The school officials, however, misunderstand Domino’s,","paragraph_id":"para_362"},{"text":"arguing that it also says that a defendant must be a party to the","paragraph_id":"para_363"},{"text":"contract for a § 1981 claim to follow. No. In fact, Domino’s did not","paragraph_id":"para_364"},{"text":"consider that question—but this Court has. See Faraca, 506 F.2d at","paragraph_id":"para_365"},{"text":"959. We have already explained Faraca, in which we allowed a","paragraph_id":"para_366"},{"text":"plaintiff to sue a nonparty to a contract for interfering with the","paragraph_id":"para_367"},{"text":"plaintiff’s prospective contract rights. See id. Same goes for Moore","paragraph_id":"para_368"},{"text":"v. Grady Memorial Hospital Corporation, in which yet another § 1981","paragraph_id":"para_369"},{"text":"claim proceeded on a third-party interference theory. 834 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_370"},{"text":"1168 (11th Cir. 2016). There, a black professor alleged that the","paragraph_id":"para_371"},{"text":"hospital where he performed clinical duties made racially","paragraph_id":"para_372"},{"text":"motivated decisions to oust him from the operating room and","paragraph_id":"para_373"},{"text":"suspended his hospital privileges, putting him in breach of his","paragraph_id":"para_374"},{"text":"employment contract with his university. Id. at 1169, 1171. He","paragraph_id":"para_375"},{"text":"sued the hospital and several doctors under § 1981 for interfering","paragraph_id":"para_376"},{"text":"with his employment contract. Id. at 1171. His claims survived","paragraph_id":"para_377"},{"text":"dismissal because we held that he had plausibly alleged that the","paragraph_id":"para_378"},{"text":"hospital and several doctors, all nonparties to the contract,","paragraph_id":"para_379"},{"text":"impaired his agreement with the university. Id. at 1171, 1174.","paragraph_id":"para_380"},{"text":"The school officials also press McCarthy v. City of Cordele, but","paragraph_id":"para_381"},{"text":"there too, they miss the mark. 111 F.4th 1141 (11th Cir. 2024).","paragraph_id":"para_382"},{"text":"McCarthy involved an employment discrimination suit against a","paragraph_id":"para_383"},{"text":"municipal employer. Id. at 1147. In that context, our cases require","paragraph_id":"para_384"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 14 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_385"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 15","paragraph_id":"para_386"},{"text":"the plaintiff to allege that the defendant had the power to","paragraph_id":"para_387"},{"text":"“effectuate” the plaintiff’s firing. Id. (quotation omitted); see Quinn","paragraph_id":"para_388"},{"text":"v. Monroe County, 330 F.3d 1320, 1326–28 (11th Cir. 2003). For","paragraph_id":"para_389"},{"text":"McCarthy, because the Commission itself fired him, not the","paragraph_id":"para_390"},{"text":"individual Chair, his § 1981 claim against the Chair could not","paragraph_id":"para_391"},{"text":"survive. McCarthy, 111 F.4th at 1147.","paragraph_id":"para_392"},{"text":"The decision goes no further. And if McCarthy did eliminate","paragraph_id":"para_393"},{"text":"third-party liability in this context, it would contradict Faraca and","paragraph_id":"para_394"},{"text":"Moore. That, in turn, would violate this Court’s prior-panel","paragraph_id":"para_395"},{"text":"precedent rule, which does not allow that kind of do-over. See Scott","paragraph_id":"para_396"},{"text":"v. United States, 890 F.3d 1239, 1257 (11th Cir. 2018).","paragraph_id":"para_397"},{"text":"D.","paragraph_id":"para_398"},{"text":"These cases, besides not persuading us, are somewhat of a","paragraph_id":"para_399"},{"text":"sideshow to the officials’ primary point. The real meat of their","paragraph_id":"para_400"},{"text":"argument is that qualified immunity applies because uncertainty","paragraph_id":"para_401"},{"text":"exists about whether government officials can be held personally","paragraph_id":"para_402"},{"text":"liable under § 1981. In support, they identify several out-of-circuit","paragraph_id":"para_403"},{"text":"cases questioning whether § 1981 claims are cognizable against","paragraph_id":"para_404"},{"text":"government officials. See, e.g., Johnson v. Halstead, 916 F.3d 410, 419","paragraph_id":"para_405"},{"text":"n.3 (5th Cir. 2019); Jones v. City of Houston, 756 F. App’x 341, 347 n.6","paragraph_id":"para_406"},{"text":"(5th Cir. Nov. 20, 2018) (unpublished). One from this Court, too,","paragraph_id":"para_407"},{"text":"albeit in an unreasoned footnote in an unpublished opinion. See","paragraph_id":"para_408"},{"text":"Okwan v. Emory Healthcare Inc., No. 20-11467, 2021 WL 4099236, at","paragraph_id":"para_409"},{"text":"*1 n.1 (11th Cir. Sept. 9, 2021) (unpublished).","paragraph_id":"para_410"},{"text":"The problem is that this liability argument is completely","paragraph_id":"para_411"},{"text":"beside the point. It “asks the wrong question about qualified","paragraph_id":"para_412"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 15 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_413"},{"text":"16 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_414"},{"text":"immunity.” Taylor v. Ways, 999 F.3d 478, 491 (7th Cir. 2021); accord","paragraph_id":"para_415"},{"text":"O’Connor v. Eubanks, 83 F.4th 1018, 1025 (6th Cir. 2023) (Thapar, J.,","paragraph_id":"para_416"},{"text":"concurring). The right question is whether the wrongfulness of an","paragraph_id":"para_417"},{"text":"official’s conduct was clearly established—not whether the rules of","paragraph_id":"para_418"},{"text":"individual liability were settled. Taylor, 999 F.3d at 491. After all,","paragraph_id":"para_419"},{"text":"the qualified immunity standard is an objective inquiry that focuses","paragraph_id":"para_420"},{"text":"on the defendants’ “actions” or “conduct.” Id. (collecting cases).","paragraph_id":"para_421"},{"text":"So whether a defendant is sure that he can be held civilly liable for","paragraph_id":"para_422"},{"text":"his illegal conduct plays no part in the qualified immunity analysis.","paragraph_id":"para_423"},{"text":"See id.","paragraph_id":"para_424"},{"text":"Our precedent supports this understanding. In Williams v.","paragraph_id":"para_425"},{"text":"Aguirre, for instance, the defendant officers were not entitled to","paragraph_id":"para_426"},{"text":"qualified immunity for malicious prosecution, even though our","paragraph_id":"para_427"},{"text":"case law on that cause of action was “unsettled” at the time. 965","paragraph_id":"para_428"},{"text":"F.3d 1147, 1169 (11th Cir. 2020). Why? The “doctrinal tensions”","paragraph_id":"para_429"},{"text":"that we identified concerned the “vehicle” controlling liability for","paragraph_id":"para_430"},{"text":"concededly unlawful conduct—not the lawfulness of the conduct","paragraph_id":"para_431"},{"text":"itself. Id. Because the latter question is what matters for qualified","paragraph_id":"para_432"},{"text":"immunity, and the law clearly prohibited the alleged conduct, we","paragraph_id":"para_433"},{"text":"rejected the officers’ attempt to avoid suit. Id.","paragraph_id":"para_434"},{"text":"Taylor v. Ways, from the Seventh Circuit, is instructive, too.","paragraph_id":"para_435"},{"text":"999 F.3d 478. There, the plaintiff sued several government officials","paragraph_id":"para_436"},{"text":"under § 1983, alleging that he was fired because of his race in","paragraph_id":"para_437"},{"text":"violation of the Equal Protection Clause. Id. at 481. One defendant","paragraph_id":"para_438"},{"text":"asked for qualified immunity on the grounds that “it was not","paragraph_id":"para_439"},{"text":"clearly established that a subordinate employee could be held liable","paragraph_id":"para_440"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 16 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_441"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 17","paragraph_id":"para_442"},{"text":"for unlawful efforts to cause the termination of another employee.”","paragraph_id":"para_443"},{"text":"Id. at 491 (emphasis omitted). The court said no, correctly","paragraph_id":"para_444"},{"text":"reasoning that the qualified immunity analysis focuses on whether","paragraph_id":"para_445"},{"text":"the official’s conduct violated a clearly established right—not","paragraph_id":"para_446"},{"text":"whether that conduct may give rise to liability. Id. We agree. If","paragraph_id":"para_447"},{"text":"an official knows (or should know) that his actions are illegal, it is","paragraph_id":"para_448"},{"text":"no excuse that liability may not have caught up with him. That is","paragraph_id":"para_449"},{"text":"a question about the merits, not immunity.","paragraph_id":"para_450"},{"text":"The cases the school officials rely on do not convince us","paragraph_id":"para_451"},{"text":"otherwise. First up is Ziglar v. Abbasi, in which a set of executive","paragraph_id":"para_452"},{"text":"branch officials were accused of on-the-job conspiracy in post-9/11","paragraph_id":"para_453"},{"text":"policymaking. 582 U.S. 120, 125–26, 152 (2017). The Supreme","paragraph_id":"para_454"},{"text":"Court granted them qualified immunity. Id. at 155. Why?","paragraph_id":"para_455"},{"text":"Uncertainty about whether the law prohibited the officials’","paragraph_id":"para_456"},{"text":"conduct: “The question with respect to the § 1985(3) claim is","paragraph_id":"para_457"},{"text":"whether a reasonable officer in petitioners’ position would have","paragraph_id":"para_458"},{"text":"known the alleged conduct was an unlawful conspiracy.” Id. The","paragraph_id":"para_459"},{"text":"officials here, in contrast, equate uncertainty about the lawfulness","paragraph_id":"para_460"},{"text":"of their alleged conduct with disagreement about whether they can","paragraph_id":"para_461"},{"text":"be held personally liable for it. Those are not the same. And only","paragraph_id":"para_462"},{"text":"the first has anything to do with qualified immunity.","paragraph_id":"para_463"},{"text":"To be fair, at least one court has endorsed the","paragraph_id":"para_464"},{"text":"misunderstanding pressed by the school officials. The Fifth Circuit","paragraph_id":"para_465"},{"text":"reversed a denial of qualified immunity because “it was not clearly","paragraph_id":"para_466"},{"text":"established that public employees are subject to individual liability”","paragraph_id":"para_467"},{"text":"under the Family and Medical Leave Act at the time the challenged","paragraph_id":"para_468"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 17 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_469"},{"text":"18 Opinion of the Court 24-12144","paragraph_id":"para_470"},{"text":"conduct occurred. Modica v. Taylor, 465 F.3d 174, 188 (5th Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_471"},{"text":"2006). But that out-of-circuit precedent does not persuade us. Plus,","paragraph_id":"para_472"},{"text":"as long as we are counting noses, the Tenth Circuit confronted the","paragraph_id":"para_473"},{"text":"same issue and came out the other way. See Gray v. Baker, 399 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_474"},{"text":"1241, 1245 (10th Cir. 2005). That court explained that “the question","paragraph_id":"para_475"},{"text":"of whether the defendants are subject to individual liability under","paragraph_id":"para_476"},{"text":"the FMLA is one of statutory construction that had no bearing on”","paragraph_id":"para_477"},{"text":"whether the law clearly prohibited the defendants’ conduct. Id. at","paragraph_id":"para_478"},{"text":"1245. We agree—the officials’ uncertainty about whether they","paragraph_id":"para_479"},{"text":"could face civil liability for illegal conduct has nothing to do with","paragraph_id":"para_480"},{"text":"the qualified immunity analysis. The relevant question is whether","paragraph_id":"para_481"},{"text":"their conduct was unlawful, not whether a plaintiff can successfully","paragraph_id":"para_482"},{"text":"haul them into court for it.8","paragraph_id":"para_483"},{"text":"The school officials’ argument, taken to its full extent, would","paragraph_id":"para_484"},{"text":"give government officials a free pass to violate the law whenever","paragraph_id":"para_485"},{"text":"the path to their personal liability is not well-trod. That cannot be","paragraph_id":"para_486"},{"text":"the case. “Qualified immunity gives government officials","paragraph_id":"para_487"},{"text":"breathing room to make reasonable but mistaken judgments about","paragraph_id":"para_488"},{"text":"open legal questions.” al-Kidd, 563 U.S. at 743. It does not give","paragraph_id":"para_489"},{"text":"them a license to “knowingly violate the law.” Id. (quotation","paragraph_id":"para_490"},{"text":"omitted).","paragraph_id":"para_491"},{"text":"In short, according to Foster’s allegations, the defendant","paragraph_id":"para_492"},{"text":"school officials impaired her ability to reap the full benefits of her","paragraph_id":"para_493"},{"text":"contract with the district. And they did so because of deep-seated","paragraph_id":"para_494"},{"text":"8 We take no position on the merits of whether individual government officials","paragraph_id":"para_495"},{"text":"can face personal liability under § 1981.","paragraph_id":"para_496"},{"text":"USCA11 Case: 24-12144 Document: 39-1 Date Filed: 03/18/2026 Page: 18 of 19","paragraph_id":"para_497"},{"text":"24-12144 Opinion of the Court 19","paragraph_id":"para_498"},{"text":"racial animus toward her. Under § 1981, every reasonable official","paragraph_id":"para_499"},{"text":"would have understood that conduct to be unlawful, and that","paragraph_id":"para_500"},{"text":"conclusion forecloses the school officials’ request for qualified","paragraph_id":"para_501"},{"text":"immunity.","paragraph_id":"para_502"},{"text":"* * *","paragraph_id":"para_503"},{"text":"Foster alleges that the defendants engaged in conduct that","paragraph_id":"para_504"},{"text":"violated clearly established law. 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