{"attribution":{"source":"legal.exploreworldai.com","canonical":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca1-25-1443-2026-09-11","cite_as":"NovaCopilot, legal.exploreworldai.com (https://legal.exploreworldai.com/api/public/v1/judgment-text?id=us:ca1-25-1443-2026-09-11)","license":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/revision","version":"legal-2026-10-20","fingerprint":"ewai:us:49b4aa","proof":"sha256:502808b2878435d413410a047da10312745e4e51a405053fc52c90e52687ef92","jurisdiction":"us","lang":"en","publisher":"NovaCopilot by ExploreWorld Legal","terms":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/om"},"brand_source":"Source: NovaCopilot","item":{"schema_version":"1.0.0","id":"us:ca1-25-1443-2026-09-11","jurisdiction":"us","lang":"en","brand_source":"Source: NovaCopilot","brand":{"product":"NovaCopilot","platform":"ExploreWorldAI","infrastructure":"ExploreWorld Legal","infrastructure_url":"legal.exploreworldai.com","legal_entity":"Valkiv Ventures AB","permanent_url":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/novacopilot","source":"Source: NovaCopilot","powered_by":"Powered by NovaCopilot","license":"https://legal.exploreworldai.com/licensvillkor"},"sections":[{"title":"United States Court of Appeals","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"For the First Circuit","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"No. 25-1443","paragraphs":["para_4","para_5","para_6","para_7","para_8"]},{"title":"APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"FOR THE DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS","paragraphs":["para_11"]},{"title":"Before","paragraphs":["para_13","para_14"]},{"title":"James L. Sultan, with whom Rankin & Sultan, was on brief, for","paragraphs":["para_16"]},{"title":"Randall Ernest Kromm, Assistant United States Attorney, with","paragraphs":["para_18","para_19"]},{"title":"September 11, 2026","paragraphs":["para_21"]},{"title":"DUNLAP, Circuit Judge. A jury convicted","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Defendant-Appellant Malik Parsons on one count of conspiracy to","paragraphs":["para_24","para_25","para_26"]},{"title":"(b)(1)(B)(vi). The district court subsequently sentenced Parsons","paragraphs":["para_28","para_29","para_30","para_31"]},{"title":"Second, he contends that the district court clearly erred by","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(1) applying a two-level upward adjustment to his offense level","paragraphs":["para_34","para_35","para_36","para_37","para_38","para_39"]},{"title":"On November 30, 2021, a grand jury indicted Parsons and","paragraphs":["para_41","para_42"]},{"title":"(1) conspiracy to distribute (and possess with intent to","paragraphs":["para_44","para_45","para_46"]},{"title":"(2) possession with intent to distribute the same amounts of drugs","paragraphs":["para_48"]},{"title":"(b)(1)(B)(vi) (Count Two); (3) possession of firearms in","paragraphs":["para_50","para_51","para_52","para_53"]},{"title":"Two, and Four and received a sentence of seventy-months","paragraphs":["para_55"]},{"title":"Counts One and Two.1","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"At Parsons's trial, the government presented its case","paragraphs":["para_58","para_59"]},{"title":"August 2, 2021, search of Apartment A-311 (the \"Apartment\") -- a","paragraphs":["para_61","para_62","para_63"]},{"title":"The government's principal witness was Detective","paragraphs":["para_65","para_66","para_67"]},{"title":"1 The government dismissed Counts Three and Four as to","paragraphs":["para_69","para_70","para_71","para_72","para_73","para_74","para_75","para_76","para_77"]},{"title":"Apartment \"[o]n a near daily basis\" and noted that each \"had keys","paragraphs":["para_79","para_80","para_81"]},{"title":"Detective Lattanzio also obtained a warrant to install two cameras","paragraphs":["para_83","para_84","para_85","para_86","para_87","para_88","para_89","para_90","para_91"]},{"title":"Of note, video surveillance showed Parsons arriving at","paragraphs":["para_93","para_94","para_95","para_96","para_97"]},{"title":"Parsons exited the Apartment while counting multiple clear plastic","paragraphs":["para_99"]},{"title":"Detective Lattanzio also observed Parsons brushing himself off","paragraphs":["para_101","para_102","para_103","para_104"]},{"title":"Parsons visiting the Apartment for approximately twenty minutes on","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"July 31, two days before law enforcement searched the Apartment;","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Parsons changed his clothes while there. Photos taken by law","paragraphs":["para_108","para_109","para_110","para_111"]},{"title":"Detective Lattanzio testified regarding other evidence obtained","paragraphs":["para_113","para_114","para_115","para_116","para_117"]},{"title":"(2) GPS tracking data of Parsons's car showing \"numerous pull-offs","paragraphs":["para_119","para_120","para_121"]},{"title":"(3) surveilled car trips in which Detective Lattanzio observed","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Bean-Bousseau and Parsons conduct numerous \"hand-to-hand","paragraphs":["para_124","para_125","para_126","para_127"]},{"title":"Apartment that Detective Lattanzio identified as \"used in the","paragraphs":["para_129","para_130"]},{"title":"(6) approximately 697 grams of cocaine in a box under the kitchen","paragraphs":["para_132","para_133","para_134","para_135"]},{"title":"Bean-Bousseau's person after he left the Apartment on August 2.3","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Towards the close of his direct examination, over","paragraphs":["para_138","para_139","para_140","para_141","para_142"]},{"title":"3 The government's other forensic chemist, Christopher","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Benitendo, analyzed the substances found during the August 2","paragraphs":["para_145","para_146","para_147"]},{"title":"Q: Based on what we saw during this trial and","paragraphs":["para_149","para_150"]},{"title":"A: I believe it was being used as a stash","paragraphs":["para_152","para_153"]},{"title":"Q: Who was using that stash house?","paragraphs":["para_155","para_156","para_157"]},{"title":"On January 24, 2025, a jury convicted Parsons of both","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Counts One and Two. The district court sentenced Parsons to","paragraphs":["para_160","para_161","para_162"]},{"title":"On appeal, Parsons challenges both his convictions and","paragraphs":["para_164","para_165"]},{"title":"Lattanzio to testify that he believed Parsons used the Apartment","paragraphs":["para_167","para_168","para_169","para_170","para_171","para_172","para_173"]},{"title":"A. Admission of Testimony","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Parsons first argues that the district court abused its","paragraphs":["para_176"]},{"title":"Bean-Bousseau and Parsons were \"using\" the Apartment as a \"stash","paragraphs":["para_178","para_179","para_180","para_181"]},{"title":"Lattanzio's statements; (2) the government asked Detective","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Lattanzio to base his answer on \"everything [they've] learned\";","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(3) the testimony supported the government's theory while cutting","paragraphs":["para_185","para_186"]},{"title":"We review the district court's admission of lay opinion","paragraphs":["para_188","para_189"]},{"title":"2025); see Fed. R. Evid. 701. But even if the district court","paragraphs":["para_191","para_192","para_193","para_194"]},{"title":"Cir. 2011). Such an error is harmless where \"it is 'highly","paragraphs":["para_196"]},{"title":"United States v. Meises, 645 F.3d 5, 23 (1st Cir. 2011)). \"The","paragraphs":["para_198","para_199","para_200","para_201","para_202","para_203","para_204"]},{"title":"(1st Cir. 2009)). \"For criminal cases, the strength or weakness","paragraphs":["para_206","para_207"]},{"title":"Kilmartin, 944 F.3d 315, 338 (1st Cir. 2019). We \"may find an","paragraphs":["para_209","para_210","para_211"]},{"title":"2008) (holding that admission of hearsay testimony from law","paragraphs":["para_213","para_214"]},{"title":"The government concedes that Detective Lattanzio's","paragraphs":["para_216","para_217","para_218","para_219","para_220","para_221","para_222","para_223","para_224"]},{"title":"United States v. García-Sierra, 994 F.3d 17, 26 (1st Cir. 2021))","paragraphs":["para_226"]},{"title":"Pérez-Vásquez, 6 F.4th 180, 199 (1st Cir. 2021) (\"In describing","paragraphs":["para_228","para_229"]},{"title":"Rodríguez-Adorno, 695 F.3d 32, 38 (1st Cir. 2012))). While there","paragraphs":["para_231","para_232","para_233"]},{"title":"An extensive array of unobjected-to testimony and","paragraphs":["para_235","para_236","para_237","para_238","para_239","para_240","para_241","para_242","para_243"]},{"title":"Apartment; he disposed of items containing drug residue in the","paragraphs":["para_245","para_246","para_247","para_248","para_249"]},{"title":"Parsons counters that because Detective Lattanzio's","paragraphs":["para_251","para_252","para_253","para_254","para_255","para_256","para_257","para_258","para_259","para_260","para_261","para_262"]},{"title":"All this testimony -- to which Parsons did not object at","paragraphs":["para_264"]},{"title":"Because Detective Lattanzio's testimony concerning the","paragraphs":["para_266","para_267","para_268"]},{"title":"4 Although Parsons concedes that \"the government's other","paragraphs":["para_270","para_271","para_272","para_273","para_274","para_275","para_276","para_277","para_278","para_279","para_280","para_281","para_282","para_283","para_284","para_285"]},{"title":"5 Parsons primarily relies on two cases to support his","paragraphs":["para_287"]},{"title":"United States v. Meises, 645 F.3d 5 (1st Cir. 2011), and United","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"States v. Vazquez-Rivera, 665 F.3d 351 (1st Cir. 2011). But these","paragraphs":["para_290"]},{"title":"Vazquez-Rivera both involved multiple inadmissible statements, and","paragraphs":["para_292"]},{"title":"Here, we only have the statement by Detective Lattanzio -- that","paragraphs":["para_294","para_295"]},{"title":"Meises was that \"the contested statements were not 'cumulative of","paragraphs":["para_297","para_298"]},{"title":"2007)). Rather, the inadmissible statements were \"central to the","paragraphs":["para_300","para_301","para_302"]},{"title":"Lattanzio on how his team conducted the investigation, as well as","paragraphs":["para_304","para_305","para_306","para_307","para_308","para_309"]},{"title":"B. Offense Level Calculation","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Parsons separately contests his sentence, challenging","paragraphs":["para_312"]},{"title":"Sentencing Guidelines. As recounted in Parsons's Presentence","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Report (PSR) and the parties' sentencing memoranda, the search of","paragraphs":["para_315","para_316","para_317","para_318","para_319"]},{"title":"U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1) based on the finding that firearms were","paragraphs":["para_321","para_322","para_323","para_324"]},{"title":"Claims, as here, that the district court erred in","paragraphs":["para_326"]},{"title":"States v. Guía-Sendeme, 134 F.4th 611, 616 (1st Cir. 2025). We","paragraphs":["para_328","para_329","para_330","para_331","para_332","para_333","para_334","para_335","para_336"]},{"title":"1. Possession-of-Dangerous-Weapon Enhancement","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Parsons first argues that the district court erred by","paragraphs":["para_339"]},{"title":"U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1). That provision allows for such an","paragraphs":["para_341","para_342"]},{"title":"U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1); United States v. Nuñez, 840 F.3d 1, 5 (1st","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Cir. 2016). \"The government has the initial burden of","paragraphs":["para_345","para_346","para_347"]},{"title":"173 (1st Cir. 2024).6","paragraphs":["para_349","para_350","para_351","para_352","para_353"]},{"title":"Parsons suggests that the district court improperly","paragraphs":["para_355","para_356","para_357","para_358","para_359"]},{"title":"Guía-Sendeme, 134 F.4th 611, 626 (1st Cir. 2025). The record","paragraphs":["para_361","para_362","para_363","para_364","para_365","para_366"]},{"title":"The government may show such possession \"by showing that","paragraphs":["para_368"]},{"title":"States v. Sylvestre, 78 F.4th 28, 36 (1st Cir. 2023) (quoting","paragraphs":["para_370","para_371","para_372","para_373","para_374"]},{"title":"2017)). \"Both 'actual knowledge' and 'intent to control' 'may be","paragraphs":["para_376","para_377","para_378","para_379","para_380","para_381","para_382","para_383","para_384"]},{"title":"Parsons separately requests that we \"reconsider\" the","paragraphs":["para_386","para_387","para_388","para_389","para_390","para_391","para_392","para_393","para_394"]},{"title":"Here, the evidence supports a finding by a preponderance","paragraphs":["para_396","para_397","para_398","para_399","para_400","para_401","para_402"]},{"title":"Parsons stayed overnight at the Apartment approximately weekly;","paragraphs":["para_404"]},{"title":"Apartment; that at least one of Parsons and Bean-Bousseau always","paragraphs":["para_406","para_407","para_408","para_409"]},{"title":"All this evidence supports a finding that Parsons","paragraphs":["para_411","para_412"]},{"title":"Apartment -- presumably sleeping in the bedroom -- and also","paragraphs":["para_414","para_415","para_416","para_417","para_418","para_419"]},{"title":"Parsons's control over the bedroom and its closet, in","paragraphs":["para_421","para_422"]},{"title":"Sylvestre, 78 F.4th at 36; see Mendoza-Maisonet, 962 F.3d at 13","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"(affirming finding that defendant had constructive possession of","paragraphs":["para_425","para_426","para_427"]},{"title":"2007) (affirming finding that defendant had constructive","paragraphs":["para_429","para_430","para_431"]},{"title":"The extensive evidence of Parsons's personal involvement","paragraphs":["para_433","para_434","para_435","para_436"]},{"title":"Apartment as a stash-house \"provides a compelling motive for","paragraphs":["para_438"]},{"title":"United States v. Smith, 292 F.3d 90, 99 (1st Cir. 2002); see United","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"States v. McLean, 409 F.3d 492, 504 (1st Cir. 2005) (explaining","paragraphs":["para_441","para_442","para_443","para_444","para_445"]},{"title":"Here, law enforcement found more than one-half kilogram of drugs","paragraphs":["para_447"]},{"title":"Parsons to use the firearms for protection, especially given that","paragraphs":["para_449","para_450"]},{"title":"Because the record supports a finding of constructive","paragraphs":["para_452","para_453","para_454"]},{"title":"2. Zero-Point-Offender Reduction","paragraphs":[]},{"title":"Parsons next argues that the district court erred by","paragraphs":["para_457"]},{"title":"U.S.S.G. § 4C1.1(a). That provision, appended to the guidelines","paragraphs":["para_459","para_460","para_461","para_462","para_463","para_464","para_465","para_466","para_467","para_468","para_469","para_470","para_471","para_472","para_473"]},{"title":"U.S.S.G. § 4C1.1(a)(7). Despite noting \"a paucity of reported","paragraphs":["para_475"]},{"title":"Parsons contends that the district court improperly conflated the","paragraphs":["para_477","para_478","para_479","para_480","para_481","para_482","para_483","para_484","para_485","para_486","para_487","para_488","para_489","para_490","para_491","para_492","para_493","para_494","para_495","para_496"]},{"title":"For these reasons, we affirm Parsons's convictions and","paragraphs":["para_498","para_499","para_500"]}],"paragraphs":[{"text":"United States Court of Appeals","paragraph_id":"para_1"},{"text":"For the First Circuit","paragraph_id":"para_2"},{"text":"No. 25-1443","paragraph_id":"para_3"},{"text":"UNITED STATES,","paragraph_id":"para_4"},{"text":"Appellee,","paragraph_id":"para_5"},{"text":"v.","paragraph_id":"para_6"},{"text":"MALIK D. PARSONS,","paragraph_id":"para_7"},{"text":"Defendant, Appellant.","paragraph_id":"para_8"},{"text":"APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT","paragraph_id":"para_9"},{"text":"FOR THE DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS","paragraph_id":"para_10"},{"text":"[Hon. Nathaniel M. Gorton, U.S. District Judge]","paragraph_id":"para_11"},{"text":"Before","paragraph_id":"para_12"},{"text":"Aframe, Thompson, and Dunlap,","paragraph_id":"para_13"},{"text":"Circuit Judges.","paragraph_id":"para_14"},{"text":"James L. Sultan, with whom Rankin & Sultan, was on brief, for","paragraph_id":"para_15"},{"text":"appellant.","paragraph_id":"para_16"},{"text":"Randall Ernest Kromm, Assistant United States Attorney, with","paragraph_id":"para_17"},{"text":"whom Leah B. Foley, United States Attorney, Appellate Division,","paragraph_id":"para_18"},{"text":"was on brief, for appellee.","paragraph_id":"para_19"},{"text":"September 11, 2026","paragraph_id":"para_20"},{"text":"- 2 -","paragraph_id":"para_21"},{"text":"DUNLAP, Circuit Judge. A jury convicted","paragraph_id":"para_22"},{"text":"Defendant-Appellant Malik Parsons on one count of conspiracy to","paragraph_id":"para_23"},{"text":"distribute illegal drugs in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 846 and one","paragraph_id":"para_24"},{"text":"count of possession with intent to distribute those drugs in","paragraph_id":"para_25"},{"text":"violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1), (b)(1)(B)(ii), and","paragraph_id":"para_26"},{"text":"(b)(1)(B)(vi). The district court subsequently sentenced Parsons","paragraph_id":"para_27"},{"text":"to eighty-four months' imprisonment. Parsons challenges his","paragraph_id":"para_28"},{"text":"convictions and sentence on two grounds. First, he contends that","paragraph_id":"para_29"},{"text":"the district court abused its discretion by admitting an improper","paragraph_id":"para_30"},{"text":"lay opinion by a law enforcement agent regarding his culpability.","paragraph_id":"para_31"},{"text":"Second, he contends that the district court clearly erred by","paragraph_id":"para_32"},{"text":"(1) applying a two-level upward adjustment to his offense level","paragraph_id":"para_33"},{"text":"for possession of a dangerous weapon under U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1),","paragraph_id":"para_34"},{"text":"and (2) declining to apply a two-level zero-point-offender","paragraph_id":"para_35"},{"text":"downward adjustment to his offense level under U.S.S.G.","paragraph_id":"para_36"},{"text":"§ 4C1.1(a). We reject each challenge and affirm Parsons's","paragraph_id":"para_37"},{"text":"convictions and sentence.","paragraph_id":"para_38"},{"text":"I.","paragraph_id":"para_39"},{"text":"On November 30, 2021, a grand jury indicted Parsons and","paragraph_id":"para_40"},{"text":"his co-defendant, Malik Bean-Bousseau, on various charges related","paragraph_id":"para_41"},{"text":"to a drug-trafficking conspiracy. Those charges included:","paragraph_id":"para_42"},{"text":"(1) conspiracy to distribute (and possess with intent to","paragraph_id":"para_43"},{"text":"distribute) forty grams or more of fentanyl and five hundred grams","paragraph_id":"para_44"},{"text":"or more of cocaine in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 846 (Count One);","paragraph_id":"para_45"},{"text":"- 3 -","paragraph_id":"para_46"},{"text":"(2) possession with intent to distribute the same amounts of drugs","paragraph_id":"para_47"},{"text":"in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1), (b)(1)(B)(ii), and","paragraph_id":"para_48"},{"text":"(b)(1)(B)(vi) (Count Two); (3) possession of firearms in","paragraph_id":"para_49"},{"text":"furtherance of a drug trafficking offense in violation of 18 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_50"},{"text":"§ 924(c)(1)(A)(i) (Count Three); and (4) possession of a firearm","paragraph_id":"para_51"},{"text":"with an obliterated serial number in violation of 18 U.S.C.","paragraph_id":"para_52"},{"text":"§ 922(k) (Count Four). Bean-Bousseau pled guilty to Counts One,","paragraph_id":"para_53"},{"text":"Two, and Four and received a sentence of seventy-months","paragraph_id":"para_54"},{"text":"imprisonment. Parsons, on the other hand, proceeded to trial on","paragraph_id":"para_55"},{"text":"Counts One and Two.1","paragraph_id":"para_56"},{"text":"At Parsons's trial, the government presented its case","paragraph_id":"para_57"},{"text":"through several law enforcement witnesses and exhibits, including","paragraph_id":"para_58"},{"text":"video surveillance, photographs, and evidence seized during an","paragraph_id":"para_59"},{"text":"August 2, 2021, search of Apartment A-311 (the \"Apartment\") -- a","paragraph_id":"para_60"},{"text":"unit in a multi-unit complex in Mansfield, Massachusetts -- as","paragraph_id":"para_61"},{"text":"well as drugs seized from Bean-Bousseau while he was leaving the","paragraph_id":"para_62"},{"text":"Apartment that day. We recount the relevant evidence below.","paragraph_id":"para_63"},{"text":"The government's principal witness was Detective","paragraph_id":"para_64"},{"text":"Supervisor Anthony Lattanzio of the Mansfield Police Department.","paragraph_id":"para_65"},{"text":"He testified about his experience with drug investigations,","paragraph_id":"para_66"},{"text":"including his involvement in \"hundreds of drug arrests\" and","paragraph_id":"para_67"},{"text":"1 The government dismissed Counts Three and Four as to","paragraph_id":"para_68"},{"text":"Parsons prior to trial.","paragraph_id":"para_69"},{"text":"- 4 -","paragraph_id":"para_70"},{"text":"familiarity with the appearance, packaging, and distribution of","paragraph_id":"para_71"},{"text":"drugs like fentanyl and cocaine. Based on his experience, he","paragraph_id":"para_72"},{"text":"testified that a \"stash house\" refers to the \"location that's","paragraph_id":"para_73"},{"text":"primarily used to hide drugs and package drugs and has a primary","paragraph_id":"para_74"},{"text":"distribution location.\" Detective Lattanzio further testified","paragraph_id":"para_75"},{"text":"that, in March 2021, he began surveilling the Apartment. During","paragraph_id":"para_76"},{"text":"that surveillance, he saw Bean-Bousseau and Parsons at the","paragraph_id":"para_77"},{"text":"Apartment \"[o]n a near daily basis\" and noted that each \"had keys","paragraph_id":"para_78"},{"text":"to the [A]partment,\" although neither was listed on the lease for","paragraph_id":"para_79"},{"text":"it. Detective Lattanzio never observed the individual who had","paragraph_id":"para_80"},{"text":"signed the lease at the Apartment during his investigation.","paragraph_id":"para_81"},{"text":"Detective Lattanzio also obtained a warrant to install two cameras","paragraph_id":"para_82"},{"text":"on the premises -- one on the building exterior, and the other in","paragraph_id":"para_83"},{"text":"the interior hallway facing the Apartment -- which operated","paragraph_id":"para_84"},{"text":"between May 26 and August 2, 2021. Video from those cameras showed","paragraph_id":"para_85"},{"text":"that Bean-Bousseau and Parsons accessed the Apartment almost","paragraph_id":"para_86"},{"text":"daily; that Parsons spent the night at the Apartment about once a","paragraph_id":"para_87"},{"text":"week; that Parsons visited the Apartment sometimes by himself and","paragraph_id":"para_88"},{"text":"other times with Bean-Bousseau; and that Bean-Bousseau would","paragraph_id":"para_89"},{"text":"\"rare[ly]\" bring guests to the Apartment, but no guests visited","paragraph_id":"para_90"},{"text":"the Apartment when neither Bean-Bousseau nor Parsons were present.","paragraph_id":"para_91"},{"text":"Of note, video surveillance showed Parsons arriving at","paragraph_id":"para_92"},{"text":"the Apartment on May 31 and exiting the next day with a clear","paragraph_id":"para_93"},{"text":"plastic bag that appeared to be knotted at the top and contain a","paragraph_id":"para_94"},{"text":"- 5 -","paragraph_id":"para_95"},{"text":"white substance, which Detective Lattanzio explained \"is","paragraph_id":"para_96"},{"text":"consistent with packaging narcotics.\" Moreover, on June 4,","paragraph_id":"para_97"},{"text":"Parsons exited the Apartment while counting multiple clear plastic","paragraph_id":"para_98"},{"text":"bags each containing a white substance. At various times,","paragraph_id":"para_99"},{"text":"Detective Lattanzio also observed Parsons brushing himself off","paragraph_id":"para_100"},{"text":"after leaving the Apartment and putting on clothes in the hallway","paragraph_id":"para_101"},{"text":"or parking lot, which Lattanzio testified is consistent with","paragraph_id":"para_102"},{"text":"\"clean[ing] himself off\" after \"packaging powdery substances such","paragraph_id":"para_103"},{"text":"as cocaine and fentanyl.\" Detective Lattanzio last observed","paragraph_id":"para_104"},{"text":"Parsons visiting the Apartment for approximately twenty minutes on","paragraph_id":"para_105"},{"text":"July 31, two days before law enforcement searched the Apartment;","paragraph_id":"para_106"},{"text":"Parsons changed his clothes while there. Photos taken by law","paragraph_id":"para_107"},{"text":"enforcement at the time of their August 2 search depicted clothes","paragraph_id":"para_108"},{"text":"hanging in a bedroom closet, along with a few items on the shelf","paragraph_id":"para_109"},{"text":"and a bag on the floor.","paragraph_id":"para_110"},{"text":"In addition to his surveillance of the Apartment,","paragraph_id":"para_111"},{"text":"Detective Lattanzio testified regarding other evidence obtained","paragraph_id":"para_112"},{"text":"during the investigation. That included (1) a pre-paid cellphone","paragraph_id":"para_113"},{"text":"recovered from a trash pull at the apartment complex that was","paragraph_id":"para_114"},{"text":"originally obtained by Bean-Bousseau and Parsons at Target -- a","paragraph_id":"para_115"},{"text":"\"burner\" phone that Detective Lattanzio explained is commonly","paragraph_id":"para_116"},{"text":"\"used by drug dealers to avoid detection by law enforcement\";","paragraph_id":"para_117"},{"text":"(2) GPS tracking data of Parsons's car showing \"numerous pull-offs","paragraph_id":"para_118"},{"text":"and stops that were conducted for short periods of time,\" including","paragraph_id":"para_119"},{"text":"- 6 -","paragraph_id":"para_120"},{"text":"several stops in parking lots at apartment complexes;","paragraph_id":"para_121"},{"text":"(3) surveilled car trips in which Detective Lattanzio observed","paragraph_id":"para_122"},{"text":"Bean-Bousseau and Parsons conduct numerous \"hand-to-hand","paragraph_id":"para_123"},{"text":"transactions\" after leaving the Apartment; (4) a trash bag thrown","paragraph_id":"para_124"},{"text":"away by Parsons at the apartment complex that contained parts of","paragraph_id":"para_125"},{"text":"plastic bags with white residue, which tested positive for","paragraph_id":"para_126"},{"text":"fentanyl;2 (5) items seized during the August 2 search of the","paragraph_id":"para_127"},{"text":"Apartment that Detective Lattanzio identified as \"used in the","paragraph_id":"para_128"},{"text":"production of narcotics,\" including measuring cups, parts of a","paragraph_id":"para_129"},{"text":"blender, a sifter, Pyrex bowls, pots, two scales, and lactose;","paragraph_id":"para_130"},{"text":"(6) approximately 697 grams of cocaine in a box under the kitchen","paragraph_id":"para_131"},{"text":"sink and approximately 273 grams of cocaine in a bag in a bedroom","paragraph_id":"para_132"},{"text":"closet of the Apartment; and (7) a knife, $2,820 in cash, and","paragraph_id":"para_133"},{"text":"multiple bags of drugs -- containing approximately 126 grams of","paragraph_id":"para_134"},{"text":"fentanyl and thirteen grams of cocaine base -- found on","paragraph_id":"para_135"},{"text":"Bean-Bousseau's person after he left the Apartment on August 2.3","paragraph_id":"para_136"},{"text":"Towards the close of his direct examination, over","paragraph_id":"para_137"},{"text":"defense counsel's objection, Detective Lattanzio provided the","paragraph_id":"para_138"},{"text":"following testimony concerning Parsons's use of the Apartment:","paragraph_id":"para_139"},{"text":"2 One of the government's forensic chemists, Adriana DiLalla,","paragraph_id":"para_140"},{"text":"analyzed the residue on the bags recovered from that trash pull","paragraph_id":"para_141"},{"text":"and testified that the residue contained fentanyl.","paragraph_id":"para_142"},{"text":"3 The government's other forensic chemist, Christopher","paragraph_id":"para_143"},{"text":"Benitendo, analyzed the substances found during the August 2","paragraph_id":"para_144"},{"text":"search, both in the Apartment and on Bean-Bousseau's person, and","paragraph_id":"para_145"},{"text":"testified that they contained fentanyl and cocaine.","paragraph_id":"para_146"},{"text":"- 7 -","paragraph_id":"para_147"},{"text":"Q: Based on what we saw during this trial and","paragraph_id":"para_148"},{"text":"everything we've learned, how do you","paragraph_id":"para_149"},{"text":"believe the apartment was being used?","paragraph_id":"para_150"},{"text":"A: I believe it was being used as a stash","paragraph_id":"para_151"},{"text":"house to package and distribute illegal","paragraph_id":"para_152"},{"text":"narcotics.","paragraph_id":"para_153"},{"text":"Q: Who was using that stash house?","paragraph_id":"para_154"},{"text":"MS. HACKETT [defense counsel]: Objection.","paragraph_id":"para_155"},{"text":"THE COURT: Overruled.","paragraph_id":"para_156"},{"text":"A: Malik Bean and Malik Parsons.","paragraph_id":"para_157"},{"text":"On January 24, 2025, a jury convicted Parsons of both","paragraph_id":"para_158"},{"text":"Counts One and Two. The district court sentenced Parsons to","paragraph_id":"para_159"},{"text":"eighty-four months' imprisonment, to be followed by four years of","paragraph_id":"para_160"},{"text":"supervised release. This appeal followed.","paragraph_id":"para_161"},{"text":"II.","paragraph_id":"para_162"},{"text":"On appeal, Parsons challenges both his convictions and","paragraph_id":"para_163"},{"text":"his sentence. As for his convictions, Parsons argues that the","paragraph_id":"para_164"},{"text":"district court abused its discretion by permitting Detective","paragraph_id":"para_165"},{"text":"Lattanzio to testify that he believed Parsons used the Apartment","paragraph_id":"para_166"},{"text":"as a stash house. As for his sentence, Parsons argues that the","paragraph_id":"para_167"},{"text":"district court clearly erred both by applying a two-level upward","paragraph_id":"para_168"},{"text":"adjustment to his offense level for possession of a dangerous","paragraph_id":"para_169"},{"text":"weapon and by declining to apply a two-level zero-point-offender","paragraph_id":"para_170"},{"text":"downward adjustment to his offense level. For the reasons below,","paragraph_id":"para_171"},{"text":"each challenge fails.","paragraph_id":"para_172"},{"text":"- 8 -","paragraph_id":"para_173"},{"text":"A. Admission of Testimony","paragraph_id":"para_174"},{"text":"Parsons first argues that the district court abused its","paragraph_id":"para_175"},{"text":"discretion by admitting Detective Lattanzio's testimony that","paragraph_id":"para_176"},{"text":"Bean-Bousseau and Parsons were \"using\" the Apartment as a \"stash","paragraph_id":"para_177"},{"text":"house\" to package and distribute drugs. Parsons contends that the","paragraph_id":"para_178"},{"text":"testimony was an improper lay opinion by a law enforcement agent","paragraph_id":"para_179"},{"text":"that the evidence supported a guilty verdict. He specifically","paragraph_id":"para_180"},{"text":"gives four reasons why: (1) the government elicited Detective","paragraph_id":"para_181"},{"text":"Lattanzio's statements; (2) the government asked Detective","paragraph_id":"para_182"},{"text":"Lattanzio to base his answer on \"everything [they've] learned\";","paragraph_id":"para_183"},{"text":"(3) the testimony supported the government's theory while cutting","paragraph_id":"para_184"},{"text":"against Parsons's; and (4) the testimony constituted an expression","paragraph_id":"para_185"},{"text":"of opinion based on the totality of evidence.","paragraph_id":"para_186"},{"text":"We review the district court's admission of lay opinion","paragraph_id":"para_187"},{"text":"testimony under Federal Rule of Evidence 701 for abuse of","paragraph_id":"para_188"},{"text":"discretion. United States v. Pontz, 132 F.4th 10, 19 (1st Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_189"},{"text":"2025); see Fed. R. Evid. 701. But even if the district court","paragraph_id":"para_190"},{"text":"abused its discretion, we apply a harmless error standard to","paragraph_id":"para_191"},{"text":"determine if a non-constitutional evidentiary error -- like","paragraph_id":"para_192"},{"text":"improperly admitting lay opinion testimony -- warrants judicial","paragraph_id":"para_193"},{"text":"relief. See United States v. Sanabria, 645 F.3d 505, 516 (1st","paragraph_id":"para_194"},{"text":"Cir. 2011). Such an error is harmless where \"it is 'highly","paragraph_id":"para_195"},{"text":"probable that [it] did not influence the verdict.'\" Id. (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_196"},{"text":"United States v. Meises, 645 F.3d 5, 23 (1st Cir. 2011)). \"The","paragraph_id":"para_197"},{"text":"- 9 -","paragraph_id":"para_198"},{"text":"government bears the burden to establish harmlessness, and the","paragraph_id":"para_199"},{"text":"inquiry requires a case-specific examination of factors that","paragraph_id":"para_200"},{"text":"include 'the centrality of the tainted material,' its prejudicial","paragraph_id":"para_201"},{"text":"impact, and any other indications that 'the error affected the","paragraph_id":"para_202"},{"text":"factfinder's resolution of a material issue.'\" Meises, 645 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_203"},{"text":"at 24 (quoting United States v. Flores-De-Jesús, 569 F.3d 8, 27","paragraph_id":"para_204"},{"text":"(1st Cir. 2009)). \"For criminal cases, the strength or weakness","paragraph_id":"para_205"},{"text":"of the government's evidence of guilt is normally the most","paragraph_id":"para_206"},{"text":"important integer in the harmlessness equation.\" United States v.","paragraph_id":"para_207"},{"text":"Kilmartin, 944 F.3d 315, 338 (1st Cir. 2019). We \"may find an","paragraph_id":"para_208"},{"text":"error harmless when the properly admitted evidence, in and of","paragraph_id":"para_209"},{"text":"itself, furnished overwhelming proof of the defendant's guilt.\"","paragraph_id":"para_210"},{"text":"Id.; see United States v. Rodriguez, 525 F.3d 85, 97 (1st Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_211"},{"text":"2008) (holding that admission of hearsay testimony from law","paragraph_id":"para_212"},{"text":"enforcement agent was harmless error when \"ample evidence was","paragraph_id":"para_213"},{"text":"subsequently offered\" to support drug-conspiracy conviction).","paragraph_id":"para_214"},{"text":"The government concedes that Detective Lattanzio's","paragraph_id":"para_215"},{"text":"testimony \"raises concerns\" under our precedent because it","paragraph_id":"para_216"},{"text":"identifies Parsons as a user of the apartment that functioned as","paragraph_id":"para_217"},{"text":"a \"stash house,\" effectively offering the conclusion that Parsons","paragraph_id":"para_218"},{"text":"distributed illegal drugs. \"Testimony by a law enforcement agent","paragraph_id":"para_219"},{"text":"constitutes impermissible overview testimony when it effectively","paragraph_id":"para_220"},{"text":"opines that a defendant is guilty based on the totality of","paragraph_id":"para_221"},{"text":"information gathered in the agent's investigation.\" United States","paragraph_id":"para_222"},{"text":"- 10 -","paragraph_id":"para_223"},{"text":"v. Agramonte-Quezada, 30 F.4th 1, 19 (1st Cir. 2022) (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_224"},{"text":"United States v. García-Sierra, 994 F.3d 17, 26 (1st Cir. 2021))","paragraph_id":"para_225"},{"text":"(internal quotation marks omitted); see United States v.","paragraph_id":"para_226"},{"text":"Pérez-Vásquez, 6 F.4th 180, 199 (1st Cir. 2021) (\"In describing","paragraph_id":"para_227"},{"text":"his investigation, an officer may not make 'conclusory statements","paragraph_id":"para_228"},{"text":"about the defendant's culpability.'\" (quoting United States v.","paragraph_id":"para_229"},{"text":"Rodríguez-Adorno, 695 F.3d 32, 38 (1st Cir. 2012))). While there","paragraph_id":"para_230"},{"text":"appear to be sound reasons for the government's concession, we","paragraph_id":"para_231"},{"text":"need not definitively resolve that issue here because any error in","paragraph_id":"para_232"},{"text":"admitting Detective Lattanzio's challenged testimony was harmless.","paragraph_id":"para_233"},{"text":"An extensive array of unobjected-to testimony and","paragraph_id":"para_234"},{"text":"evidence supported Parsons's convictions. For instance, video","paragraph_id":"para_235"},{"text":"surveillance of the Apartment, GPS data and physical surveillance","paragraph_id":"para_236"},{"text":"of Parsons's activities outside the Apartment, and drugs and drug","paragraph_id":"para_237"},{"text":"paraphernalia recovered from the Apartment all supported the","paragraph_id":"para_238"},{"text":"conclusion that the Apartment was a stash house. Surveillance","paragraph_id":"para_239"},{"text":"also revealed that Parsons was a \"user\" of the stash house: he had","paragraph_id":"para_240"},{"text":"a key for the Apartment; he visited the Apartment almost","paragraph_id":"para_241"},{"text":"daily -- including without Bean-Bousseau -- and stayed overnight","paragraph_id":"para_242"},{"text":"weekly; he carried substances appearing to be drugs outside of the","paragraph_id":"para_243"},{"text":"Apartment; he disposed of items containing drug residue in the","paragraph_id":"para_244"},{"text":"apartment complex's trash facility; and he executed hand-to-hand","paragraph_id":"para_245"},{"text":"transactions after leaving the Apartment. All this \"evidence,","paragraph_id":"para_246"},{"text":"- 11 -","paragraph_id":"para_247"},{"text":"standing alone, supplied overwhelming proof\" of Parsons's","paragraph_id":"para_248"},{"text":"participation in the drug conspiracy. Kilmartin, 944 F.3d at 339.","paragraph_id":"para_249"},{"text":"Parsons counters that because Detective Lattanzio's","paragraph_id":"para_250"},{"text":"testimony comprised eighty percent of the testimony presented by","paragraph_id":"para_251"},{"text":"the government, it \"had no case\" without him. Parsons does not,","paragraph_id":"para_252"},{"text":"however, challenge the majority of Detective Lattanzio's","paragraph_id":"para_253"},{"text":"testimony, including his testimony concerning the methods used for","paragraph_id":"para_254"},{"text":"packaging and distributing drugs, such as \"[h]and-to-hand","paragraph_id":"para_255"},{"text":"transactions\"; the role of \"stash houses\" to serve as facilities","paragraph_id":"para_256"},{"text":"for \"hid[ing] drugs and packag[ing] drugs\" and \"primary","paragraph_id":"para_257"},{"text":"distribution location[s]\"; his observations of Parsons leaving the","paragraph_id":"para_258"},{"text":"apartment holding bags containing a white substance that appeared","paragraph_id":"para_259"},{"text":"to be drugs and executing hand-to-hand transactions with","paragraph_id":"para_260"},{"text":"customers; and the drugs and drug paraphernalia recovered from the","paragraph_id":"para_261"},{"text":"Apartment, where Parsons regularly visited and stayed overnight.","paragraph_id":"para_262"},{"text":"All this testimony -- to which Parsons did not object at","paragraph_id":"para_263"},{"text":"trial -- supports his drug-possession and conspiracy convictions.","paragraph_id":"para_264"},{"text":"Because Detective Lattanzio's testimony concerning the","paragraph_id":"para_265"},{"text":"use of the Apartment was thus \"only one small piece\" of the","paragraph_id":"para_266"},{"text":"evidence supporting Parsons's convictions, \"[t]he jury plainly","paragraph_id":"para_267"},{"text":"would have drawn the same conclusion without\" it.4 United States","paragraph_id":"para_268"},{"text":"4 Although Parsons concedes that \"the government's other","paragraph_id":"para_269"},{"text":"evidence against [him] was substantial,\" he insists that \"it was","paragraph_id":"para_270"},{"text":"far from overwhelming.\" He points to the fact that he visited","paragraph_id":"para_271"},{"text":"the Apartment only once in the two weeks before it was searched by","paragraph_id":"para_272"},{"text":"- 12 -","paragraph_id":"para_273"},{"text":"v. Balthazard, 360 F.3d 309, 319 (1st Cir. 2004). Accordingly,","paragraph_id":"para_274"},{"text":"even if the district court abused its discretion by admitting the","paragraph_id":"para_275"},{"text":"challenged testimony -- a question that we do not need to decide","paragraph_id":"para_276"},{"text":"today -- any error was harmless because \"it is 'highly probable","paragraph_id":"para_277"},{"text":"that [it] did not influence the verdict.'\"5 Sanabria, 645 F.3d at","paragraph_id":"para_278"},{"text":"516 (internal quotation omitted).","paragraph_id":"para_279"},{"text":"law enforcement; that at the time of the search, only Bean-Bousseau","paragraph_id":"para_280"},{"text":"was present at the Apartment and there were no drugs in plain view;","paragraph_id":"para_281"},{"text":"and that none of the packages of drugs seized by law enforcement","paragraph_id":"para_282"},{"text":"were tested for fingerprints. In our view, these facts do not","paragraph_id":"para_283"},{"text":"disturb the \"ample evidence\" supporting Parsons' convictions.","paragraph_id":"para_284"},{"text":"United States v. Rodriguez, 525 F.3d 85, 97 (1st Cir. 2008).","paragraph_id":"para_285"},{"text":"5 Parsons primarily relies on two cases to support his","paragraph_id":"para_286"},{"text":"proposition that the admission of the testimony was not harmless:","paragraph_id":"para_287"},{"text":"United States v. Meises, 645 F.3d 5 (1st Cir. 2011), and United","paragraph_id":"para_288"},{"text":"States v. Vazquez-Rivera, 665 F.3d 351 (1st Cir. 2011). But these","paragraph_id":"para_289"},{"text":"cases are readily distinguishable. First, Meises and","paragraph_id":"para_290"},{"text":"Vazquez-Rivera both involved multiple inadmissible statements, and","paragraph_id":"para_291"},{"text":"the combined effects of these statements had to be considered.","paragraph_id":"para_292"},{"text":"Here, we only have the statement by Detective Lattanzio -- that","paragraph_id":"para_293"},{"text":"they were using the apartment as a \"stash house\" -- mentioned","paragraph_id":"para_294"},{"text":"above. Second, a central component to the court's decision in","paragraph_id":"para_295"},{"text":"Meises was that \"the contested statements were not 'cumulative of","paragraph_id":"para_296"},{"text":"other compelling proof'\" of the defendants' guilt. 645 F.3d at 25","paragraph_id":"para_297"},{"text":"(quoting United States v. Earle, 488 F.3d 537, 546 (1st Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_298"},{"text":"2007)). Rather, the inadmissible statements were \"central to the","paragraph_id":"para_299"},{"text":"prosecution's case.\" Id. Here, Detective Lattanzio's statement","paragraph_id":"para_300"},{"text":"is cumulative of other compelling proof. Outside of his statement,","paragraph_id":"para_301"},{"text":"the government elicited a breadth of testimony from Detective","paragraph_id":"para_302"},{"text":"Lattanzio on how his team conducted the investigation, as well as","paragraph_id":"para_303"},{"text":"from other officers detailing the more than 270 grams of cocaine","paragraph_id":"para_304"},{"text":"base and supplies consistent with packaging drugs for distribution","paragraph_id":"para_305"},{"text":"recovered from the Apartment. All of which the jury could use to","paragraph_id":"para_306"},{"text":"determine, beyond a reasonable doubt, that Parsons used the","paragraph_id":"para_307"},{"text":"apartment as a drug stash house.","paragraph_id":"para_308"},{"text":"- 13 -","paragraph_id":"para_309"},{"text":"B. Offense Level Calculation","paragraph_id":"para_310"},{"text":"Parsons separately contests his sentence, challenging","paragraph_id":"para_311"},{"text":"the district court's calculation of his offense level under the","paragraph_id":"para_312"},{"text":"Sentencing Guidelines. As recounted in Parsons's Presentence","paragraph_id":"para_313"},{"text":"Report (PSR) and the parties' sentencing memoranda, the search of","paragraph_id":"para_314"},{"text":"the Apartment additionally yielded two firearms -- one in a","paragraph_id":"para_315"},{"text":"sweatshirt hanging in the bedroom closet and the other in a shoebox","paragraph_id":"para_316"},{"text":"in that closet. Over the objections of defense counsel, the","paragraph_id":"para_317"},{"text":"district court adopted the PSR's recommendations to (1) apply a","paragraph_id":"para_318"},{"text":"two-level sentencing enhancement to Parson's offense level under","paragraph_id":"para_319"},{"text":"U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1) based on the finding that firearms were","paragraph_id":"para_320"},{"text":"possessed in connection with the drug trafficking, and (2) deny a","paragraph_id":"para_321"},{"text":"two-level reduction to his offense level available to certain","paragraph_id":"para_322"},{"text":"zero-point offenders under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.2 based on the same","paragraph_id":"para_323"},{"text":"finding. Parsons challenges each application of the guidelines.","paragraph_id":"para_324"},{"text":"Claims, as here, that the district court erred in","paragraph_id":"para_325"},{"text":"applying the guidelines are procedural in nature. See United","paragraph_id":"para_326"},{"text":"States v. Guía-Sendeme, 134 F.4th 611, 616 (1st Cir. 2025). We","paragraph_id":"para_327"},{"text":"review preserved procedural-reasonableness claims under a","paragraph_id":"para_328"},{"text":"\"multifaceted abuse-of-discretion standard.\" Id. (quoting United","paragraph_id":"para_329"},{"text":"States v. Mendoza-Maisonet, 962 F.3d 1, 20 (1st Cir. 2020)).","paragraph_id":"para_330"},{"text":"\"Under that standard, we review the sentencing court's","paragraph_id":"para_331"},{"text":"interpretation and application of the Sentencing Guidelines de","paragraph_id":"para_332"},{"text":"novo, its factfinding for clear error, and its exercise of judgment","paragraph_id":"para_333"},{"text":"- 14 -","paragraph_id":"para_334"},{"text":"for abuse of discretion.\" Id. We uphold the district court's","paragraph_id":"para_335"},{"text":"application of the guidelines to Parsons.","paragraph_id":"para_336"},{"text":"1. Possession-of-Dangerous-Weapon Enhancement","paragraph_id":"para_337"},{"text":"Parsons first argues that the district court erred by","paragraph_id":"para_338"},{"text":"applying a two-level enhancement to his offense level under","paragraph_id":"para_339"},{"text":"U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1). That provision allows for such an","paragraph_id":"para_340"},{"text":"enhancement \"[i]f a dangerous weapon (including a firearm) was","paragraph_id":"para_341"},{"text":"possessed\" during the course of a drug-trafficking offense.","paragraph_id":"para_342"},{"text":"U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1); United States v. Nuñez, 840 F.3d 1, 5 (1st","paragraph_id":"para_343"},{"text":"Cir. 2016). \"The government has the initial burden of","paragraph_id":"para_344"},{"text":"establishing\" by a preponderance of the evidence \"that the","paragraph_id":"para_345"},{"text":"defendant possessed a weapon during the commission of the offense.\"","paragraph_id":"para_346"},{"text":"Nuñez, 840 F.3d at 5; see United States v. Elliott, 113 F.4th 168,","paragraph_id":"para_347"},{"text":"173 (1st Cir. 2024).6","paragraph_id":"para_348"},{"text":"6 If the government meets its burden to establish possession,","paragraph_id":"para_349"},{"text":"\"the enhancement attaches unless the defendant can show that it","paragraph_id":"para_350"},{"text":"was clearly improbable that the weapon was connected to the crime.\"","paragraph_id":"para_351"},{"text":"United States v. Nuñez, 840 F.3d 1, 5 (1st Cir. 2016); see U.S.S.G.","paragraph_id":"para_352"},{"text":"§ 2D1.1, cmt. n.11.","paragraph_id":"para_353"},{"text":"Parsons suggests that the district court improperly","paragraph_id":"para_354"},{"text":"considered this application note when determining whether","paragraph_id":"para_355"},{"text":"possession of firearms by his co-defendant was reasonably","paragraph_id":"para_356"},{"text":"foreseeable to him -- a finding that is an alternative to a finding","paragraph_id":"para_357"},{"text":"of constructive possession by Parsons that would also support","paragraph_id":"para_358"},{"text":"application of the firearms enhancement. See United States v.","paragraph_id":"para_359"},{"text":"Guía-Sendeme, 134 F.4th 611, 626 (1st Cir. 2025). The record","paragraph_id":"para_360"},{"text":"shows, however, that the district court merely referenced the","paragraph_id":"para_361"},{"text":"application note in a question to the parties, not that it relied","paragraph_id":"para_362"},{"text":"on the note for that part of its analysis. In any event, we hold","paragraph_id":"para_363"},{"text":"that the record supports a finding of constructive possession, and","paragraph_id":"para_364"},{"text":"need not rely on any finding of reasonable foreseeability.","paragraph_id":"para_365"},{"text":"- 15 -","paragraph_id":"para_366"},{"text":"The government may show such possession \"by showing that","paragraph_id":"para_367"},{"text":"the defendant had 'constructive possession' of the weapon.\" United","paragraph_id":"para_368"},{"text":"States v. Sylvestre, 78 F.4th 28, 36 (1st Cir. 2023) (quoting","paragraph_id":"para_369"},{"text":"United States v. Davis, 909 F.3d 9, 18 (1st Cir. 2018)).","paragraph_id":"para_370"},{"text":"\"Constructive possession is present 'when a person knowingly has","paragraph_id":"para_371"},{"text":"the power at a particular time to exercise dominion and control","paragraph_id":"para_372"},{"text":"over' an object,\" and \"may be proven by circumstantial evidence.\"","paragraph_id":"para_373"},{"text":"Id. (quoting United States v. Nuñez, 852 F.3d 141, 145 (1st Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_374"},{"text":"2017)). \"Both 'actual knowledge' and 'intent to control' 'may be","paragraph_id":"para_375"},{"text":"proven by circumstantial evidence.'\" Id. (quoting Davis, 909 F.3d","paragraph_id":"para_376"},{"text":"at 18). \"'[E]vidence of an individual's control over the area where","paragraph_id":"para_377"},{"text":"the contraband is found' is 'valid circumstantial evidence of","paragraph_id":"para_378"},{"text":"constructive possession.'\" Id. (quoting Davis, 909 F.3d at 19).","paragraph_id":"para_379"},{"text":"\"[M]ere presence with or proximity to weapons or association with","paragraph_id":"para_380"},{"text":"another who possesses a weapon,\" on the other hand, \"are not enough","paragraph_id":"para_381"},{"text":"to prove constructive possession.\" United States v.","paragraph_id":"para_382"},{"text":"Rodriguez-Lozada, 558 F.3d 29, 40 (1st Cir. 2009). Moreover,","paragraph_id":"para_383"},{"text":"\"[c]onstructive possession may be sole or joint and may be achieved","paragraph_id":"para_384"},{"text":"Parsons separately requests that we \"reconsider\" the","paragraph_id":"para_385"},{"text":"application note's legal effect altogether, because \"some circuits","paragraph_id":"para_386"},{"text":"have declined to rely on U.S.S.G. commentary as authoritative\"","paragraph_id":"para_387"},{"text":"following the Supreme Court's holding in Kisor v. Wilkie, 588 U.S.","paragraph_id":"para_388"},{"text":"558 (2019). But because Parsons has not developed this argument,","paragraph_id":"para_389"},{"text":"we deem it waived. See United States v. Zannino, 895 F.2d 1, 17","paragraph_id":"para_390"},{"text":"(1st Cir. 1990).","paragraph_id":"para_391"},{"text":"- 16 -","paragraph_id":"para_392"},{"text":"directly or through others.\" United States v. Akinola, 985 F.2d","paragraph_id":"para_393"},{"text":"1105, 1109 (1st Cir. 1993).","paragraph_id":"para_394"},{"text":"Here, the evidence supports a finding by a preponderance","paragraph_id":"para_395"},{"text":"of the evidence that Parsons constructively possessed the firearms","paragraph_id":"para_396"},{"text":"recovered from the Apartment in connection with his","paragraph_id":"para_397"},{"text":"drug-trafficking offenses. Specifically, Detective Lattanzio's","paragraph_id":"para_398"},{"text":"testimony established, based on several months of surveillance","paragraph_id":"para_399"},{"text":"during the course of the drug-trafficking activity, that Parsons","paragraph_id":"para_400"},{"text":"had keys to the Apartment; that Parsons visited the Apartment on","paragraph_id":"para_401"},{"text":"a \"near daily\" basis, both with Bean-Bousseau and on his own; that","paragraph_id":"para_402"},{"text":"Parsons stayed overnight at the Apartment approximately weekly;","paragraph_id":"para_403"},{"text":"that the renter listed on the lease was never observed at the","paragraph_id":"para_404"},{"text":"Apartment; that at least one of Parsons and Bean-Bousseau always","paragraph_id":"para_405"},{"text":"accompanied guests into the Apartment; and that two days before","paragraph_id":"para_406"},{"text":"law enforcement searched the Apartment, Parsons was inside for","paragraph_id":"para_407"},{"text":"approximately twenty minutes and changed his clothes before he","paragraph_id":"para_408"},{"text":"left.","paragraph_id":"para_409"},{"text":"All this evidence supports a finding that Parsons","paragraph_id":"para_410"},{"text":"exercised control over the Apartment and, specifically, the","paragraph_id":"para_411"},{"text":"bedroom, given that he regularly spent the night at the","paragraph_id":"para_412"},{"text":"Apartment -- presumably sleeping in the bedroom -- and also","paragraph_id":"para_413"},{"text":"changed there -- presumably using the closet, where clothes were","paragraph_id":"para_414"},{"text":"hanging. Moreover, the contents of the closet were sparse,","paragraph_id":"para_415"},{"text":"supporting an inference that Parsons was aware of the limited","paragraph_id":"para_416"},{"text":"- 17 -","paragraph_id":"para_417"},{"text":"contents inside, including the two firearms, during his regular","paragraph_id":"para_418"},{"text":"overnight stays over the course of months.","paragraph_id":"para_419"},{"text":"Parsons's control over the bedroom and its closet, in","paragraph_id":"para_420"},{"text":"turn, supports that he \"knowingly ha[d] the power . . . to","paragraph_id":"para_421"},{"text":"exercise dominion and control over\" the firearms inside it.","paragraph_id":"para_422"},{"text":"Sylvestre, 78 F.4th at 36; see Mendoza-Maisonet, 962 F.3d at 13","paragraph_id":"para_423"},{"text":"(affirming finding that defendant had constructive possession of","paragraph_id":"para_424"},{"text":"a backpack found inside the closet of a bedroom where he slept and","paragraph_id":"para_425"},{"text":"kept some personal belongings, even though his friend owned the","paragraph_id":"para_426"},{"text":"house); United States v. Robinson, 473 F.3d 387, 399 (1st Cir.","paragraph_id":"para_427"},{"text":"2007) (affirming finding that defendant had constructive","paragraph_id":"para_428"},{"text":"possession of firearms stored inside a car where the evidence","paragraph_id":"para_429"},{"text":"showed, in part, that he was friends with the car's owner and had","paragraph_id":"para_430"},{"text":"access to the keys and opportunity to drive the car).","paragraph_id":"para_431"},{"text":"The extensive evidence of Parsons's personal involvement","paragraph_id":"para_432"},{"text":"in drug distribution from the Apartment, discussed above, further","paragraph_id":"para_433"},{"text":"supports a finding that he constructively possessed the firearms","paragraph_id":"para_434"},{"text":"during the course of his drug trafficking activity. That is","paragraph_id":"para_435"},{"text":"because Parsons's connection to the drug business and use of the","paragraph_id":"para_436"},{"text":"Apartment as a stash-house \"provides a compelling motive for","paragraph_id":"para_437"},{"text":"possessing the gun, namely, to protect his drugs and drug money.\"","paragraph_id":"para_438"},{"text":"United States v. Smith, 292 F.3d 90, 99 (1st Cir. 2002); see United","paragraph_id":"para_439"},{"text":"States v. McLean, 409 F.3d 492, 504 (1st Cir. 2005) (explaining","paragraph_id":"para_440"},{"text":"that the \"intention to exert dominion and control over [a] firearm\"","paragraph_id":"para_441"},{"text":"- 18 -","paragraph_id":"para_442"},{"text":"could be inferred based on the nature of drug transactions because","paragraph_id":"para_443"},{"text":"the defendant \"could well have intended to use the gun for","paragraph_id":"para_444"},{"text":"protection in the event of trouble with one of [his] crack sales\").","paragraph_id":"para_445"},{"text":"Here, law enforcement found more than one-half kilogram of drugs","paragraph_id":"para_446"},{"text":"during their search of the Apartment, which supports a motive for","paragraph_id":"para_447"},{"text":"Parsons to use the firearms for protection, especially given that","paragraph_id":"para_448"},{"text":"third parties -- who could attempt to seize the drugs or otherwise","paragraph_id":"para_449"},{"text":"put the operation in jeopardy -- visited the Apartment.","paragraph_id":"para_450"},{"text":"Because the record supports a finding of constructive","paragraph_id":"para_451"},{"text":"possession by a preponderance of the evidence, the district court","paragraph_id":"para_452"},{"text":"did not err in applying a two-level enhancement to Parson's","paragraph_id":"para_453"},{"text":"offensive level under U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1).7","paragraph_id":"para_454"},{"text":"2. Zero-Point-Offender Reduction","paragraph_id":"para_455"},{"text":"Parsons next argues that the district court erred by","paragraph_id":"para_456"},{"text":"declining to apply the zero-point-offender reduction under","paragraph_id":"para_457"},{"text":"U.S.S.G. § 4C1.1(a). That provision, appended to the guidelines","paragraph_id":"para_458"},{"text":"in November 2023, provides for a downward adjustment of two offense","paragraph_id":"para_459"},{"text":"levels for a defendant who has zero criminal history points and","paragraph_id":"para_460"},{"text":"satisfies other criteria, including -- relevant here -- that he","paragraph_id":"para_461"},{"text":"7 For completeness, we note that the district court appeared,","paragraph_id":"para_462"},{"text":"at times, to apply this enhancement based on a finding of","paragraph_id":"para_463"},{"text":"reasonable foreseeability. Other times, however, the district","paragraph_id":"para_464"},{"text":"court found that Parsons constructively possessed the firearm, a","paragraph_id":"para_465"},{"text":"finding which would also support the application of this","paragraph_id":"para_466"},{"text":"enhancement. As our analysis makes clear, we rely on this latter","paragraph_id":"para_467"},{"text":"determination in affirming the district court's application of the","paragraph_id":"para_468"},{"text":"sentencing enhancement.","paragraph_id":"para_469"},{"text":"- 19 -","paragraph_id":"para_470"},{"text":"\"did not possess, receive, purchase, transport, transfer, sell, or","paragraph_id":"para_471"},{"text":"otherwise dispose of a firearm or other dangerous weapon (or induce","paragraph_id":"para_472"},{"text":"another participant to do so) in connection with the offense.\"","paragraph_id":"para_473"},{"text":"U.S.S.G. § 4C1.1(a)(7). Despite noting \"a paucity of reported","paragraph_id":"para_474"},{"text":"case law interpretating or applying this recent provision,\"","paragraph_id":"para_475"},{"text":"Parsons contends that the district court improperly conflated the","paragraph_id":"para_476"},{"text":"analysis under the sentence reduction with that for the","paragraph_id":"para_477"},{"text":"firearm-possession enhancement under U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1),","paragraph_id":"para_478"},{"text":"relying on the same finding of foreseeability in determining that","paragraph_id":"para_479"},{"text":"he \"possessed\" a firearm. Parsons insists that the district court","paragraph_id":"para_480"},{"text":"should have instead construed § 4C1.1(a)(7) in line with precedent","paragraph_id":"para_481"},{"text":"construing the identically worded safety-valve provision,","paragraph_id":"para_482"},{"text":"§ 5C1.2(a)(2), such that it would apply so long as he did not","paragraph_id":"para_483"},{"text":"personally possess the firearms at issue. As we explain above,","paragraph_id":"para_484"},{"text":"however, the record supports a finding by a preponderance of the","paragraph_id":"para_485"},{"text":"evidence that Parsons did have constructive possession of the","paragraph_id":"para_486"},{"text":"firearms; even under Parsons's proposed construction, then,","paragraph_id":"para_487"},{"text":"§ 4C1.1(a)(7) still would not apply to him. Accordingly, the","paragraph_id":"para_488"},{"text":"district court did not err in declining to reduce his offense level","paragraph_id":"para_489"},{"text":"on that basis.8","paragraph_id":"para_490"},{"text":"8 As mentioned above, the district court appeared, at times,","paragraph_id":"para_491"},{"text":"to rely on a finding of foreseeability in applying the enhancement","paragraph_id":"para_492"},{"text":"under U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(b)(1). But again, as we also mentioned","paragraph_id":"para_493"},{"text":"above, the court separately found that Parsons constructively","paragraph_id":"para_494"},{"text":"- 20 -","paragraph_id":"para_495"},{"text":"III.","paragraph_id":"para_496"},{"text":"For these reasons, we affirm Parsons's convictions and","paragraph_id":"para_497"},{"text":"sentence.","paragraph_id":"para_498"},{"text":"possessed the firearm. 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